European Union Candidate Research Articles

The subaltern strikes back, or how Ukraine is claiming agency from Russia and the European Union

ABSTRACT Using the concept of liminality in combination with ontological security through an overarching postcolonial lens, this article shows how Ukraine as a liminar on the East–West spatial-ideological axis has successfully claimed agency from the European Union (EU) and Russia in the wake of Russia’s full-scale invasion. We argue that the latter has acted as a critical juncture for Ukraine, to the point that agency has emerged from a state of ontological anxiety. Provoking the need to fight for the survival of the Self, Russia’s invasion has strongly accelerated the transformation of Ukraine’s liminal identity, uniting the country around a new asserted Self. Russia’s aggression has pushed Ukraine to definitively reject the narrative of a common identity promoted by Russia and claim its rightful belonging to Europe, thereby unleashing unprecedented agency vis-à-vis its significant Others, i.e. Russia and the EU. From the EU’s side, Ukraine has finally been embraced within the European family by receiving candidate status. From Russia’s side, Ukraine’s successful application for EU candidate status has consolidated Ukraine’s departure from Russia’s perceived sphere of influence. Along with Ukraine’s nationwide resistance against the invasion, this destabilises Russia’s projected identity discourse around the Slavic brotherhood and the “Russian world”.

The Innovativeness of the Economies of European Union Candidate Countries – an Assessment of Their Innovation Gap in Relation to the EU Average

Innovation is nowadays seen as an essential success factor in achieving economic prosperity and competing in markets. It is one of the most important determinants of the competitive process throughout the world, helping economies catch up with developing and changing technologies while revealing those countries’ innovation perspectives. The article assesses the innovativeness of the economies of selected European Union (EU) candidate countries based on the Summary Innovation Index (SII). It also estimates the innovation gap between these countries and the EU average of the SII between 2015 and 2022. The analysis is limited to Türkiye, Serbia, Albania, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Ukraine due to the availability of data that describes the SII. It provided for all the countries surveyed in the European Innovation Scoreboards, i.e., the reports of the European Commission, only from 2015. The presented analysis is based on a research hypothesis that suggests that the surveyed countries are characterized by a lower level of innovativeness of economies than the EU average, and therefore, they show an innovation gap compared to the average for EU countries in the analyzed period. The results of the analysis confirm this hypothesis – between 2015 and 2022, the economies of all the examined candidate countries recorded a lower level of innovativeness than the EU average. They showed a lower level of the SII than the EU average, and therefore, all these countries demonstrated an innovation gap compared to the EU average. Recommendations for increasing the innovativeness of those economies are formulated separately in the conclusions. The article reviews the literature on the innovation and innovativeness of economies and the innovation gap. Descriptive analysis, statistical data analysis, and comparative analysis methods are applied, and statistical data from the European Innovation Scoreboard 2022 are used. The value added of the article lies in its comparison of the level of innovativeness of the economies of selected EU candidate countries to the EU average, as well as its estimation of the innovation gap between these countries and the EU average.

The Brussels effect in Ankara: the case of climate policy

Abstract Turkey’s Europeanization process provides a particularly interesting case study of the extra-jurisdictional impact of European Union (EU) law, both through policy convergence and through the so-called Brussels effect. Formally, Turkey must adopt certain EU rules due to its status as an EU candidate country, but its candidacy process has been lengthy and uncertain, resulting in partial and uneven adoption of EU rules. Nevertheless, EU-style policymaking has persisted in various policy areas, including environmental and climate policy. This paper aims to analyze the convergence of climate change policies between the EU and Turkey by employing multidimensional scaling, a method that enables the visualization and examination of the connectivity and intensity of cooperation between states. For the period from 2007 to 2023, our comparative analysis demonstrates that policy divergence occurs when the EU’s share of Turkey’s total trade decreases and when political challenges are experienced. On the other hand, periods of policy convergence coincide with periods of increased trade volume and expanded trade opportunities. The results suggest that through its market size and regulatory capacity, the EU exerts soft power which forces Turkey to align its climate policies with the EU to protect and maintain its competitiveness in the European marketplace.

LEGAL ANALYSIS OF EU ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE ACT (2024): INSIGHTS FROM PERSONAL DATA GOVERNANCE AND HEALTH POLICY

Background: This study correlates the up-to-date ethical, functional and legal evaluations related to the management and governance of artificial intelligence (AI) under European Union (EU) law, particularly impacting the health data sector and medical standards as provided by the Artificial Intelligence Act within the Regulation adopted by the European Council in May 2024. The initial proposal for the management and governance of the AI sector was submitted in April 2021. Three years later, on 13 March 2024, the European Union Artificial Intelligence Act (EU AIA) was adopted by the European Parliament. Subsequently, on 21 May 2024, the Council adopted an innovative legislative framework that harmonises the standards and rules for AI regulation. This framework is set to take effect in May 2026, with the central objective of stimulating and motivating a fair, safe, legal single market that respects the principles of ethics and the fundamental rights of the human person. Methods: The current legal analysis focuses on the European Union’s new institutional governance involving a multistage approach to managing health data, ethical artificial intelligence, generative artificial intelligence and classification of types of AI by considering the degree of risk (e.g. artificial intelligence systems with limited risk and systems with high risk) and medical devices. It outlines the legal framework for AI regulation and governance in the EU by focusing on compliance with the previously adopted legislation in the Medical Devices Regulation (2017) and the In-Vitro Diagnostic Regulation (2017). The paper also examines the application of the newly adopted EU Artificial Intelligence Act in relation to national justice systems, previous EU regulations on medical devices and personal data protection regulation, and its correlation with the European Court of Human Rights jurisprudence. This opens up complex discussions related to judicial reform and access to justice. For this purpose, as a research objective, the legal analysis includes an innovative perspective following an integrative discussion on the latest legal reforms and regulations of the AI sector in Eastern Europe launched in 2024 with a special focus on the latest developments in the EU Candidate Countries namely Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova. Results and conclusions: The present research facilitates the exploration of the real benefits of managing innovative AI systems for medical data, research, and development, as well as within the medical technology industry.

A decade after the escalation of the crisis: how probable is the membership of Ukraine in the European Union?

At the last day of February 2022, Ukraine applied for membership in the European Union. This happened eight years after Russia has taken over Crimea, while engaging in the military support of the pro-Russian forces in Donbas region seceding from Ukraine. The country under military intervention was granted the European Union candidate status in June 2022, along with Moldova and Georgia, four months after the beginning of the Russian attack. Today, eight more countries are in the process of accession to the European Union, none of them being victim of an intervention. Two decades after the so-called Orange Revolution, and ten years after the initial Russian intervention, Ukraine has been stepping forward the European Union membership status. Exactly ten years have passed since the last enlargement of the bloc (in 2013, Croatia joined the Union), potentially signaling the most expressive period of the enlargement fatigue. In the era during which the skepticism for the enlargement is gaining momentum, it is of importance to explore whether Ukraine’s membership is truly acceptable, bearing in mind that the country is the victim of an ongoing intervention, being the first candidate country at war.

Court of Justice of the European Union and Ukrainian Legal Order: Some Pre-accession Considerations

As the European Union candidate country (hereinafter the EU), Ukraine is one step away from becoming an EU Member State. From this point on, the country will be subject to the influence of EU institutions, including the Court of Justice of the European Union (hereinafter the CJEU). It is suggested that upon the accession of Ukraine, the CJEU’s impact will be comparable to the influence on legal orders of other EU Members States provided necessary preparatory steps, such as training for judges, are taken. It is established that the main functions of the CJEU are to interpret and ensure the uniform application of EU law in each EU Member State, to ensure compliance with EU law by EU countries and institutions, to ensure respect for the rights and freedoms of individuals, to provide clarifications to national courts, and to promote “positive integration” and “negative integration” of EU Member States. With respect to the above-mentioned functions, it is argued that the CJEU will become an effective tool for Ukraine after it accedes to the EU. It will facilitate the harmonization of national legislation with EU standards through the application of precedents by national courts, influence the activities of legislative bodies, and help prevent future complaints by becoming an additional “quasi-supervisory” body in Ukraine. It will also provide interpretation of the EU law at the request of national courts through the preliminary rulings and procedures, protecting human rights and freedoms by enabling individuals to apply to the CJEU for protection. At the same time, arguably, Ukraine will also impact the functioning of the CJEU by increasing the caseload and appointing judges from Ukraine as well as potentially Advocate-General. Given these potential implications, certain preparatory actions, like preparing a cadre reserve, may be considered at the present moment. Finally, the authors argue that even before Ukraine’s accession, the CJEU has an indirect impact on the Ukrainian legal order. It is suggested that constitutional amendments, as well as certain institutional changes like the establishment of an impartial judicial system and empowering a Ukrainian state body with powers to execute CJEU decisions, will need to take place prior to the accession, which is a demonstration of the CJEU’s indirect influence.

Assessment of Innovativeness of the EU Candidate Countries Based on the European Innovation Scoreboard

Innovation is seen as a key capability for maintaining a competitive advantage, creating value for customers, and capturing a larger share of the market. In the contemporary world economy, understood as a set of mutual connections and interdependencies, innovations are crucial for economic growth and competitiveness. Internationalization and globalization processes in the world economy also concern the innovativeness of economies, and are visible in international use of technologies developed within national innovation systems, globalization of the creation and implementation of innovations, international (global) cooperation in research and development and innovation activities, international (global) protection of intellectual property. The aim of the article is to assess the level of innovativeness of the economies of selected European Union candidate countries based on the Summary Innovation Index (SII) and its components, as well as to estimate the innovation gap between these countries and the EU average of the Summary Innovation Index in 2023. The analysis was limited to Turkey (TR), Serbia (RS), Albania (AL), Montenegro ME), North Macedonia (MK), Bosnia and Herzegovina (BA) and Ukraine (UA) due to the availability of data describing the Summary Innovation Index, provided for all the EU candidate countries surveyed in the European Innovation Scoreboard. The paper formulates a research thesis assuming that the surveyed EU candidate countries are characterized by a lower level of innovativeness of economies than the EU average of the Summary Innovation Index and its components. Therefore, they show an innovation gap compared to the average for European Union countries in 2023. The results of the analysis only partially confirm this thesis. The article reviewed the literature on the innovation and innovativeness of economies and the innovation gap. The applied methods include descriptive analysis, statistical data analysis and comparative analysis along with statistical data from the European Innovation Scoreboard 2023.

3.E. Workshop: Air pollution health impacts and costs in EU accessing countries

Abstract Air pollution is detrimental for health, climate, national economies and well-being in the European Union (EU) and in EU candidate countries. In many locations air quality levels are above the EU or national legal standards and/or the guidelines recommended by the World Health Organization. Very often EU neighbours and countries in the process of accessing the EU are disproportionately more affected by the impact of air pollution than others. The newest global evidence is suggesting that human health is affected even at low pollution levels below the current European standards and WHO guideline values. In 2021, the WHO published new air quality guidelines structured in Intermediate targets and final targets which are lower than the previous recommendations published in 2005. Estimating the costs of air pollution requires analysis of extensive data sets by means of econometric and statistical methodologies. In this session is discussed the assessment at country level for Europe and worldwide which is particularly valuable for estimating statistical value of life (VSL) and the value of a life year (VOLY) for counties that have not been the focus of global estimations so far. Moreover, this workshop adds valuable new information on the Western Balkans and Ukraine that could be used in systematic efforts to develop evidence-based air pollution reduction plans and to track progress toward reducing air pollution and consequently the health impacts. The studies included in this session represent valuable efforts to acquire evidence in support of further alignment of national air quality policies with those of the EU. Key messages • The newest evidence supports efforts to further aligning the Western Balkans and Ukrainian air quality policies with those of the EU and contribute to national and local implementation. • The meta-analysis of existing literature leads to the development of econometric models for estimating VSL and VOLY at country level worldwide.

Modelling health effects of air pollution in Ukraine

Abstract Background Air pollution places a burden on health, climate, national economies and well-being in the European Union (EU) and EU candidate countries. Ukraine was the country with most deaths per 100,000 inhabitants attributable to atmospheric air pollution in 2017 according to the World Health Organisation. Harmonisation of air quality monitoring regulations and control methods with EU standards is important to lower the burden of air pollution in Ukraine. Methods This study applies the JRC-Fast Scenario Screening Tool (JRC-FASST) with ground air quality measurement data in order to study how premature mortality in Ukrainian cities is affected by the pollutant PM2.5 pre- and during COVID-19. Furthermore, a scenario analysis at country level is carried out to evaluate past and projected trends of mortality in Ukraine under three different air quality policy scenarios. Results The preliminary results show that estimated PM2.5 attributable mortality is significantly lower in the year 2020 compared to 2019 in all studied cities. Both at a country level and at a city level, ischemic heart disease is the main cause of death associated with PM2.5 attributable all-cause mortality. Conclusions Increasing the body of research on the health effects and costs of air pollution in Ukraine is important to acquire evidence in support of further alignment of Ukrainian air quality policies with those of the EU.

Walking a Tightrope: Turkey between the EU and Russia in the Crimea Crisis

The Crimea crisis marked one of the latest critical points in the European Union (EU)-Turkey-Russia triangle. This article analyzes Turkey’s position between the EU and Russia, after the events that unfolded in February 2014, by adopting Holsti’s role theory. Developing a research map through official documents, this article assesses Turkey’s two-sided strategic position, by asking the following question: How did Turkey’s intertwined relationships with the EU and Russia affect its foreign policy formulation in the Crimea crisis? Turkey’s role formulation during the Crimea crisis is defined by empirical data acquired through the official documents of EU institutions and the Turkish and Russian foreign policy ministries. MAXQDA software was utilized to provide a systematic qualitative analysis of the 123 official declarations. This article argues that Turkey’s response to the Crimea crisis was affected by several factors stemming from its asymmetric relationship with Russia, its EU candidate status, and kinship with the Crimean Tatars.

Ukrainian Universities at a Time of Global Crisis and New Opportunities: How to Secure and Develop Human Capital

Crisis periods have always been accelerators for new phases of country development. The Russian war in Ukraine and the granting of European Union candidate status are opening a space for new cooperation with European countries, reforms and opportunities for Ukraine in the education sector (exchange programs, alignment with European standards, quality improvement). At the beginning of the new academic year of 2022, two major issues are present: how to maintain the learning process during war and attacks, and how to improve the educational system for EU accession and strengthen the human capital of the state. In this study, the experience of Balkan countries (with special focus on the Yugoslav successor states) in the postwar period since the 1990s is investigated and some practical examples of innovative reforms are proposed. Major topics include academic freedom, brain-drain prevention and the involvement of EU investments and initiatives. Besides this, the pandemic benefitted society with tools of online learning, which became one of the measures to secure students’ education in the current conflict and let them continue studies as much as possible. Ukraine has the potential to improve in all spheres, although at the same time human capital is endangered because of the war.

Pharmaceutical policies in post-communist Albania: Progress and challenges toward European Union membership

Aim: Shifting from a communist regime to a democratic system has affected health system fundamentally in most of the Western Balkan countries including Albania. Albania became a European Union (EU) candidate country in 2014. Since then, one of the main concerns has been to approximate the legislation with the EU framework. The aim of this paper is to review the evolvement of pharmaceutical legislation in Albania and challenges toward achieving full approximation to the EU’s respective legislation. Methods: We used qualitative techniques, especially means of conventional content analysis and two sources to collection data. First, we consulted the Albania’s National Publications Office webpage and analysed all available legislation regarding “pharmacy”, “medicine” and “pharmaceutical products” from 1994 to 2021. Then, we analysed the National Integration Plans that have been published by the Government of Albania from 2014 to 2021. Results: The decrease of the price margin system goes in parallel with the increase of the pharmaceutical expenditure, including out-of-pocket expenditure on medicines and lack of adequate and sensitive reimbursement policies. The main pillars of the pharmaceutical sector in Albania are well-covered legally but not fully in concordance with the EU framework. Conclusion: There is a need to foster laws implementation that regulate the opening of pharmacies; a detailed regulation on pharmacovigilance; and a regulation on medicinal products for paediatric use. Also, the existing legal framework should be aligned with the European one. Medicine pricing methods should go in the same line with the decrease of out-of-pocket expenditure.

Politický systém a súčasná politická situácia v Bosne a Hercegovine: všeobecné voľby 2022

The aim of this article, based on an analysis of the political system of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the overall political situation in the country, is to assess the results of the general elections held there on October 2, 2022. These elections were probably the most watched elections of 2022, mainly because of the expected accession negotiations and the granting of the status of a European Union candidate country. The general election results were supposed to indicate whether Bosnia and Herzegovina is ready to join the ranks of developed democratic countries and whether it has finally become a functioning multi ethnic state. The methods of analysis, synthesis, deduction, induction, and generalization were used to achieve the set goal. In the end, we will point out the impact of the election results on the current political situation, which, however, does not foresee any changes compared to the current situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

������������ ���²�� ������������� ����� �� �����IJ� �������ֲ��������� ������������ � IJ������Ҳ ������ ������� �������

The article analyzes the institutional and legal foundations of combating transnational drug trafficking in the European Union (EU), as well as the regulatory and legal regulation of Ukraine's cooperation with relevant EU structures in the specified area. The regulatory and legal regulation and policy of the EU in the field of combating drug trafficking are studied from the point of view of their implementation in Ukraine as part of the implementation of the policy aimed at gaining full membership in the European Union. The works of Ukrainian and foreign scientists related to combating illegal drug trafficking in the context of the implementation of the EU anti-drug policy were analyzed. It was concluded that the European Commission sees the fight against the drug trade and organized crime in general as a key component of the EU agenda, emphasizing the need to develop a new strategic approach to the drug problem. Effective activity in this direction requires cooperation at the EU level and beyond, while the European Union tries to act as a driving force at the global level. The article points to the importance of Ukraine's acquisition of the status of an EU candidate country in June 2022. Acquiring full membership in the European Union requires our country to carry out a number of reforms and adapt its legislation in line with European criteria. Further steps in this direction will also require the implementation of strategic documents in the field of combating organised crime, and the integration of the activities of the Security Service of Ukraine into the overall European security environment. The author concludes that bringing Ukraine's anti-criminal policy in line with European standards will significantly contribute to the implementation of the European integration policy in general. It is noted that the Agreement on Operational and Strategic Cooperation between Ukraine and Europol, signed in 2017, is the main legal act regulating cooperation between Ukraine and the EU in the field of combating transnational drug trafficking. For the SSU, Europol is one of the most important international partners, the use of which is crucial for ensuring effective operational and service activities in a number of areas. Countering drug trafficking is embedded in the core of the EU's external relations, and the role of this area is increasing as the threats to the EU's security from this phenomenon grow. Such relations in this area should be based on the principles of shared responsibility, multilateralism and coordination of the global response. In the international arena, the European Union is promoting an approach that is evidence-based, holistic, balanced and multidisciplinary. Cooperation should be established with countries of origin and transit of drugs and international organisations. The application of approaches in this area developed in the European Union is important for the implementation of the European integration policy of Ukraine, which should be taken into account in the organisation of operational and service activities of the Security Service of Ukraine.

2022 Crisis Preparedness Training: Annual Report

During 2022, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) organised 2 crisis preparedness training events: 1 event involving European Union (EU) Member States (MSs) and EU candidate countries (designated the External Crisis Preparedness Training or ECPT); and another event dedicated to EFSA colleagues (designated the Internal Crisis Preparedness Training or ICPT). The selected scientific domain for both training events was chemical contamination, with a fictional scenario focusing on heavy metal contamination of a foodstuff forming the focus for the simulation exercise elements during both events. The external event was organised in conjunction with the Bulgarian Risk Assessment Centre on the Food Chain (RACFC) and took place over 3 days in Sofia, Bulgaria. The internal event was a day-long session at EFSA's offices in Parma, Italy. EFSA's crisis training contractor, Instinctif Partners, co-organised both events. In addition to simulation exercise elements, both events also included informational presentations relating to chemical contamination of the food chain; facilitated discussions on crisis response topics; plus practical training and rehearsal on EFSA tools and/or procedures. The objectives of each event were achieved, based on recorded outcomes and feedback provided by participants in an evaluation survey completed at the end of each event.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES OF YOUTH FROM EU MEMBER AND CANDIDATE STATES: CASE STUDY CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE

Worldwide, great efforts are being made in order to establish sustainable development at all levels. European Union (EU) member states are obliged to meet the requirements in the area of environmental protection. In this paper, the authors conducted a comparative study of environmental attitudes among young people from both EU transition countries and EU candidate countries. The objective was to determine the differences in environmental attitudes, environmental awareness and self-efficacy of the youth from these two groups of countries and the EU environmental policy implementation level. Results indicated that the influence of EU membership exists when it comes to the environmental attitudes of youth from the analyzed countries. Average values showed the unsatisfactory situation regarding environmental awareness and self-efficacy of respondents. In order to define the relations among environmental attitudes, self-efficacy and environmental awareness, a structural model was created. This analysis showed that these three components work the same way in both groups of countries.

The impact of national legislation on psychosocial risks on organisational action plans, psychosocial working conditions, and employee work-related stress in Europe

Work-related psychosocial hazards are recognised as a key priority in the future of work. Even though European Union (EU) legislation requires employers to assess and manage all types of risks to workers’ health and safety associated with all types of hazards in the work environment, it does not include clear reference to psychosocial risks and work-related stress. In several EU member states, there is now more specific legislation on psychosocial risks that clarifies employer responsibilities. The aim of this study is to explore whether the introduction of specific legislation on psychosocial risks and/or work-related stress is related to organisations implementing action plans to prevent work-related stress, and in turn, better psychosocial working conditions (job demands and resources), and less reported work-related stress in the workforce. It does so by comparing EU member states and candidate countries that have introduced more specific legislation to those that have not, conducting multilevel modelling analysis by linking two representative European-level datasets, the 2014 employer European Survey of Enterprises on New & Emerging Risks and the 2015 employee European Working Conditions Survey. Findings indicate that the presence of specific national stress legislation is associated with more enterprises having a work-related stress action plan. The existence of action plans was found to be associated with increased job resources but not decreased job demands. Furthermore, only in those countries with specific national legislation on stress, job resources were found to be associated with less reported stress through the existence of organisational action plans. Findings lend support to the argument for more specific legislation on psychosocial risks/work-related stress in the EU. However, they also raise questions on whether current interventions implemented at organisational level to deal with work-related stress may be geared more towards the development of individual resources and less towards better work organisation and job design.

Social protection expenditure and redistribution in the Western Balkans

AbstractThis paper analyses social protection expenditure, its financing and its correlation with redistribution effects in the European Union (EU) candidate and potential candidate countries from the Western Balkans – Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Kosovo and Serbia. Although social expenditure in the Western Balkans varies between countries in terms of the extent and functions, in general, it is growing and concentrates on the elderly population. The expenditure is strongly redistributive towards old age, but is less efficient in reducing extensive child and working-age poverty. From an intergenerational perspective, despite various recent improvements, it remains significantly unbalanced compared to the EU. The expenditure reflects the design of social rights that have been shaped by the legacy of socialism and war, local politics, and international organisations perhaps more than by the impact of economic resources and aging.

Inflation convergence over time: Sector‐level evidence within Europe

AbstractThis paper investigates inflation convergence among European countries by using sector‐level data for the period between 1997:M1 and 2019:M12. Panel unit root tests at the country‐sector level are conducted by using moving windows, which are useful for analyzing changes in inflation convergence and the corresponding speed of convergence over time. The results suggest that there is evidence for inflation convergence for the majority of sectors within Europe, although certain countries have experienced disruptions, especially during the 2008 financial crisis. Regarding the speed of inflation convergence, the average half‐life across European countries decreased from about 15 months to about 8 months during the sample period. Important sector‐level implications follow for European Union (EU) candidate countries and non‐euro EU member countries in regard to the Maastricht Treaty.

Global environmental politics and international organizations: the Eurasian and European experience

ABSTRACT The literature on environmental politics and regional governance has mainly been dedicated to the role played by the European Union (EU). The analysis of environmental agenda and politics of other regional international organisations (IOs) remained in the shadows compared to studies of European actors. This special issue aims to address the following questions: How do various regional IOs matter in promoting and sustaining an environmental agenda? What challenges do they face? The first perspective developed in this Forward to special issue looks into European IOs comparatively to Eurasian IOs. The second perspective unfolds various environmental issues within the EU and across post-Communist EU members and candidate states. The analysis of these two perspectives discloses multiple dimensions in the nexus of political and economic developments, and contribute to better understanding of the role of IOs in sustainable development.