European Defence Research Articles

The United States and European Defense Integration

US-EU relations regarding European defense integration has passed several milestones since the 1990s when the West first faced serious challenges in Europe after the end of the Cold War. The military conflicts in the Balkans, resulting from Yugoslavia’s break-up gave momentum to the integration process in the European Union. Profound changes in international environment are making the United States reconsider its views on the defense integration unfolding in the EU. Placing more responsibilities on the European Union in the security area entails the necessity for Washington to overcome entrenched prejudices, as well as suspicions that the EU ambitions may pose risks and challenges to NATO coherence. Increased EU activities in shaping European military-industrial policy and in providing large-scale supplies of weapons and ammunitions to Ukraine are leading the United States to take a fresh look at the process of European defense integration.

Trapped in the grey zone: NATO-CSDP relations in a new era of European security governance

AbstractThis paper critically examines the complementarity of NATO and the EU’s Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP), proposing a reassessment of their roles to explore potential reforms. It contributes to the forum on “Organising European Security” by tracing the historical origins of issues, such as “consensus escapism”, that challenge European security governance. In addressing this issue, the paper explores three scenarios for institutional reform: abolishing the CSDP, integrating it into NATO, or pursuing European strategic autonomy. The analysis shows that while such reforms could reduce strategic ambiguities, they might also undermine crucial community maintenance functions, especially those fulfilled by the CSDP for the EU. Following the Ukraine invasion, the structural parameters of NATO/CSDP relations have remained largely unchanged; however, the analysis indicates an emerging dynamic of a “compartmentalised geographic approach” to strengthening European security. This approach, while not eliminating NATO-CSDP ambiguities, may allow for a viable balance of community maintenance and power projection in a changing security landscape.

European Union Priority Agenda Post-Covid 19 Pandemics In Security And Defense Sectors

This research aims to explore and analyze the fundamental factors of the European Union's (EU) post Covid-19 priority agenda in the defense and security sector. The pandemic has shown that strengthening the defense and security sector to protect the country and its citizens from new threats is important and urgent for the European Union. The EU's post-pandemic priority agenda in the defense and security sector plays a crucial role in enhancing the defense and security capabilities of the European Union. This research focuses on five priority agendas, including: increasing military capacity, strengthening the European defense industry, enhancing cooperation among EU member states, improving cooperation with partner countries, and enhancing cybersecurity. This research seeks to answer the question of why it is important for the European Union to establish adjustment measures in the defense and security sector as a post-Covid-19 priority agenda and which programs are included in these five priority agendas. This research is a qualitative study that utilizes the European Security within the Constructivism paradigm proposed by Barry Buzan, Ole Waever , and Jaap de Wilde. This theory explains the dynamics of security in Europe and considers security a product of a complex social process that depends on the identities and norms present in the international community. In this theory, European identity is important in shaping European security. European identity is formed through historical and political processes that involve interactions and conflicts among European countries. Initial findings suggest that the EU's post- Covid-19 priority agenda in the defense and security sector is an effort to protect member states from external threats, but also to strengthen European identity in maintaining security.

Strategic options for the European defence industry in the 2020s

ABSTRACT In times of the “Zeitenwende” European defence industrial companies face several challenges simultaneously: high fragmentation of the industrial ecosystem and product portfolio, a historic focus on small-volume production of complex weapons systems, the need to expand capacity fast, diverging European national security strategies, Europeanisation of the security sector, and a dominant US defence industry, among others. This article analyses the most likely strategies for the European defence industrial companies as a response to this situation. The analysis is based on 18 semi-structured expert interviews with representatives of the European defence industry, academia, and politicians to identify and assess the strategic options. Porter’s Diamond framework is used to assess the impact of governmental influence, availability of production factors, historic chance, and structure of the value chain on the selection of strategies. The analysis focuses on pan-European industry consolidation, exports, self-funded R&D, internationalisation, co-operation with SMEs, and future large-scale defence co-operation programmes.

THE GEOPOLITICAL AWAKENING OF THE EUROPEAN UNION AGAINST THE BACKDROP OF THE RUSSIAN-UKRAINIAN WAR

The article analyses the impact of the Russian-Ukrainian war on the geopolitical transformation of the European Union (EU). It examines the key changes in the EU's security, energy and international relations strategy, as well as the development of its strategic autonomy and role in supporting Ukraine. The study is based on the analysis of scientific sources and political articles related to the EU's foreign policy and security mechanisms. A comparative analysis of the EU's decisions on sanctions, energy security and military assistance to Ukraine is used. Expert assessments of the geopolitical situation and economic consequences of the war are also taken into account. The article contributes to understanding the role of the Russian-Ukrainian war as a catalyst for the EU's political and strategic awakening. In particular, it highlights the development of the EU's strategic autonomy in response to its energy dependence on Russia and the growth of defence cooperation between member states. The author also explores how the war has contributed to the consolidation of European identity and the strengthening of the desire for global leadership in the face of current international challenges. The author notes that the Russian-Ukrainian war has accelerated changes in the EU's approach to foreign and security policy. The EU has strengthened its strategic autonomy, increased economic sanctions against Russia and mobilised resources to support Ukraine. At the same time, the war has shown the need to develop energy resources independent of external suppliers and to increase the EU's internal defence capabilities. Ukraine's integration into the European space has become an important strategic direction of the EU's policy. An important aspect has been the strengthening of European defence cooperation, which demonstrates the EU's desire for greater independence in security matters. Ukraine's integration into the European space is becoming one of the key directions of the EU's foreign policy, which may accelerate the process of Ukraine's accession to the Union in the future. The author also draws attention to the fact that the issue of strengthening the EU's defence capabilities affects the problem of the international security system, which today, as a result of the Russian-Ukrainian war, is undergoing the greatest transformations since the Second World War.

Analysing the European Defence Fund’s financing distribution across EU countries: what drives national participation in defence-industrial integration projects?

The establishment of the European Defence Fund (EDF) marks a significant shift in how EU Member States approach the integration of the defence industry as it aims to systematically promote inter-European defence-industrial cooperation across national defence sectors. However, there is a lack of empirical evidence of the actual dynamics regarding EDF implementation. While there are accounts of EU countries’ varying political positions on defence integration, including its industrial aspect, it remains unclear whether Member States’ actual participation in integration projects aligns with these positions. Are national motives consistent once effective defenceindustrial integration is underway? The findings, based on Masson’s (2024) data on by-country distribution of EDF project financing (2021–2022), present a more nuanced picture of EU countries’ effective engagement with defence-industrial integration than anticipated by the political perspective. While there is a positive relationship between participation in the EDF and defence market size, strategic culture does not influence EU members’ involvement in the Fund. Furthermore, while liberal economicindustrial governance is negatively associated with national participation in EDF projects, a country’s institutional quality has a significant positive relationship with it. This article reveals more complex dynamics of EDF implementation than suggested by the political perspective on defence-industrial integration pre-EDF.

Analyzing the European Union’s CSDP and the evolution of European security and defense training at the ESDC: prospects and pathways

ABSTRACT This article presents a thorough examination of the European Union’s Common Security and Defense Policy (CSDP) in comparison with the educational programs offered by the European Security and Defense College (ESDC), with a specific focus on the High-Level CSDP Course. We conducted a comprehensive analysis using a meta-synthesis research approach. Our research commenced with a Systematic Literature Review and was further validated through a qualitative case study, which included interviews with the 2023 high-Level CSDP course participants. Our research findings highlight the need to prioritize emerging topics such as climate security and identify new areas in cyber and space domains to potentially expand the CSDP. We emphasized the importance of developing strategic approaches to facilitate the dissemination of comprehensive CSDP knowledge generated by the ESDC to higher education institutions. This initiative aims to equip future EU leaders with the necessary knowledge and skills to effectively engage in CSDP-related matters.

Drivers and Impact of European Defence Market Integration: A Literature Meta-Synthesis with Economic Focus

ABSTRACT The Ukraine war, the aftermath of COVID-19, Brexit and shifting US geostrategic interests are putting pressure on the European defence situation, strategy and budgets. The current crises expose warfare capability gaps in the European armed forces and capacity constraints of the European defence industry after decades of the peace dividend. More nations are calling for stronger engagement of the EU in the defence sector to overcome these challenges and complete the European defence sector integration that started in the late 1990s. It is estimated that more cooperation in defence procurement and research could save up to 30% of the current €290 bn total EU27 defence budgets. Can this combination of recent factors provide new impulses towards a unified European defence market, more cooperation on defence procurement and industry consolidation? We conducted a literature review (‘meta-synthesis’) of 172 journal articles, studies and think-tank papers since 1995 to build a holistic picture. The analysis aims to describe the progress and challenges of European defence market integration from an economic viewpoint. It provides future researchers with a basic understanding of defence industrial challenges, motivations and economic drivers of European defence integration as well as of reasons for resistance and potential scenarios.

Herausforderungen einer neuen Sicherheitslage für Deutschland – eine finanzwissenschaftliche Perspektive

Abstract This article addresses the challenges of the new security situation that Germany faces against the background of current geopolitical conflicts and the potential weakening of US security guarantees for Europe. The article counteracts the widespread idea that more money and more soldiers are necessary and automatically lead to an increase in military power. Instead, the article argue that the financial resources spent on the military sector need to be used more efficiently. The article discusses reform options that concern different fields, e.g. the organisation of military defence in Europe, the procurement of military equipment and the recruiting of soldiers.

THE MUTLISTAKEHOLDER INITIATIVE APPROACH TO EUROPEAN CRISIS MANAGEMENT. CIVILIAN CSDP AND ENGAGEMENT WITH LOCAL NONSTATE ACTORS

: The Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) missions are deployed in complex operational environments, where a plethora of national, regional and international actors are present. These present circumstances enable the existence of an - either direct or indirect - but inexorable engagement between all stakeholders involved in similar activities. While the vast majority of current debates and research focus solely on the cooperative dimension of the CSDP in the framework of multilateralism and regionalism, the topic of the EU's engagement with local stakeholders is scarcely explored. Therefore, drawing on the multistakeholder initiative approach (MSI) in economic theory, this paper assesses the engagement of CSDP missions with civil societies and private sector entities in theatres of operations. Employing a single case study approach of inquiry, consisting of the EUCAP Somalia mission this paper aims at answering the research questions: how does EUCAP Somalia engage with local non-state actors, what are the opportunities associated with this engagement and to what extent can a MSI approach be implemented by EUCAP Somalia?By deploying a qualitative research design, this paper uses document analysis within a single case study approach of inquiry. The results of this approach show two distinct tendencies. While EUCAP Somalia informally engages with local non-state actors, this engagement is rather insufficient. Results of this research further show that CSDP missions represent an important tool of EU diplomacy and their engagement with local non-state actors positively impacts the implementation of two of their core principles: local ownership and human security.

REGIONAL COOPERATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW

The paper systematically reviews ten years of academic literature published from 2014 to 2023 and indexed in the Scopus database to establish the current state-of-the-art on how Central European regional groups operate. The review includes 52 publications on six regional cooperation formats: the Central European Defence Cooperation, the Slavkov/Austerlitz Triangle, the Salzburg Forum, the Three Seas Initiative, the Visegrád Group and the Bucharest Nine. The paper finds that regional cooperation research is very concentrated on selected aspects of Visegrád cooperation and follows poor methodological reporting practices. The majority of studies analyse the V4 in relation to migration and foreign policy issues, whereas research on cooperation dynamics in other policy areas and within other active regional groups is marginal. After identifying promising future research directions, the paper calls for greater methodological and topical diversity in Central European regional cooperation research.

The Influence of a New Geopolitical Environment on the Peace and Security of the Western Balkans

Trends in the EU and NATO are certainly a part of global international efforts and communications along with being integral parts of the actions of those progressive forces that strive towards global peace, security, and social progress. Therefore, European trends cannot be taken out of the global context of international relationships or any other efforts to make positive changes in the world. The countries of the Western Balkans are faced with important political, economic, and security challenges, and should support one another in the process of their accessions to the EU and NATO and create the necessary conditions for the development of a better European defense and security relevant as regards the security interests of NATO. As part of democracy and humanity, their friends should help in the building of a safer geopolitical environment. In the search of a better solution, it is recommended to focus on the values and goals of all citizens and peoples of the Western Balkans. This primarily includes dignified living in a modern, prosperous, and democratic country. A country of this kind in the Western Balkans can exist only by being fully integrated in the European and global organisations and by respecting contemporary global standards. The future of the countries of the Western Balkans cannot rely on negative, narrow-minded concepts or approaches. Their future should be founded on universal human values. And not only the future of the Western Balkans, but the entire region where it is situated. All of us should understand that happiness and prosperity of one people in this region should not be built upon the misfortune of others.

Schramm, Lucas. 2024. Crises of European Integration: Joining Together or Falling Apart? Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. XVII, 303 pp. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-54748-5.

The book analyses the main factors of European integration crises, taking into account eight major cases from the early 1950s to recent times. The author pays special attention to constitutional crises, the euro crisis and the migration crisis, thus showing that crises have been an integral part of the process of European integration from its very beginning. Although the book does not analyse the current confrontation between Russia and the West, the author argues that European integration began with a serious setback, when member states failed to implement plans to create a European army through the European Defence Community. The global scale and radicality of the ongoing changes allow many researchers to suggest the formation of a new system of international relations. In parallel with these processes, many provisions and phenomena characterizing the system of international relations itself are being revised.

BENELUX COUNTRIES’ SECURITY STRATEGIES: BETWEEN EUROPEANISM AND ATLANTICISM

In the article, transformation of the foreign policy and security strategies of the Benelux countries – Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg – is analyzed against the exacerbating conflict in Ukraine. Using the comparative historical method, we outline the evolution of strategic trends of Europeanism – seeking deeper integration within the European institutional framework – and Atlanticism – pursuing a general strategic orientation towards the United States – in the three countries. As smaller-sized countries, they initially combined Europeanism and «moderate» Atlanticism, which left them some space for foreign policy maneuver. Since the 1990s, the Dutch foreign policy more closely follows the Atlanticist paradigm, while those of Belgium and Luxembourg are characterized more by Europeanism. The analysis of the EU strategic autonomy debate as a case study has shown that Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg seek the greatest possible economic benefits from the autonomy initiatives. Besides, the balance between the strategic trends remains; Belgium and Luxembourg positively view deeper EU defense cooperation, while the Netherlands mostly sees security guarantees in Euro-Atlantic cooperation. The current state in European security has thus not fundamentally changed the Benelux countries’ approaches to balancing Europeanism and Atlanticism that have been characteristic for them since the 1990s. Besides, for Belgium, support for deeper integration has become a key identity feature, while the Netherlands relies on special relations with the United States and ad hoc coalitions in the EU; Luxembourg’s foreign policy can be described to follow a free rider strategy.

Readiness Through International Cooperation: Finnish Defence Industrial Strategy in Changing Operational Environment from the Mid-1990s to the Early 2020s

ABSTRACT After the Cold War, European defence industrial capacity decreased; however, in the 2020s, there is again a need for products of the defence industry. Although Finland is a small country, it has significant production capacity for defence materials. In this paper, we analyse how Finland preserved it in changing operational environment. We utilize points of departure of source-based historical research to give any reader an idea over the history of the theme. To conduct this, we have used publicly available documents and other texts, which are findable from Finnish repositories, and analyse what was Finnish policy and why it was formulated in relation to wider security political contexts. Additionally, we will analyse the available statistical data related to exports of the Finnish defence industry as they are a key part of Finnish policy. Using statistical and econometrical tools enables us to reveal important tren5ds that could otherwise be left unnoticed. Our statistical sources include, for instance, Finnish Government publications, arms industry databases of AFDA and SIPRI, SaferGlobe data, and LSEG Data & Analytics platform. Our data sources contain the most reliable and informative data available publicly.

The EU’s evolving defence-industrial ambitions

Brussels has set the goal of achieving a more genuine European defence union, but taking a more unified approach to defence issues is a long-term endeavour, with fragmentation in defence procurement and divergent member-state interests serving as significant barriers to further progress. It is likely that, as the European Commission advances its plans, it will need to balance its desire for autonomy with the reality of its ongoing reliance on non-EU suppliers.

The value of national defense: Assessing public preferences for defense policy options

Defense spending accounts for a large share of the budget in many countries, but the value of the resulting public good – national defense – has so far escaped assessment. Much of the literature has instead considered indirect benefits of defense spending in terms of greater economic growth or technological spillovers. In this paper, we assess the direct welfare effects of defense policy, namely an increase in the security of citizens, by means of a survey-based discrete choice experiment. Drawing on a representative sample of the German population, results suggest substantial willingness to pay for an increase in troop numbers, the establishment of a European army and an improved air defense system. The reintroduction of compulsory military service does not enjoy public support. Results further indicate substantial preference heterogeneity across respondents and policy options which we explore. As such, these findings demonstrate how methods of survey-based, non-market valuation can help to refine research in this area of public policy.

European Union Military Missions and the War in Ukraine: Moving beyond the Jus ad Bellum Framework

European Union Military Missions and the War in Ukraine: Moving beyond the Jus ad Bellum Framework

Enhancing equity, diversity and inclusion in the European Union military schools and academies through collaborative initiatives and gender policy reform

AbstractThe European Union Military Schools and Academies (EUMSAs) have long grappled with persistent gender imbalances among their student body, indicative of an entrenched male‐centric culture within these institutions. In recognition of this issue, the collaborative Military Gender Studies initiative was launched under the auspices of the Erasmus+ program. This project involved partners from Bulgaria, Italy, Portugal and Romania, each offering unique insights shaped by their diverse socio‐political contexts. This research aims to go beyond mere acknowledgment of disparities and instead seeks to identify actionable strategies that can foster genuine equity, diversity and inclusivity within the EUMSAs. To this end, a comprehensive data‐gathering approach was employed, incorporating various qualitative methods including face‐to‐face interviews, face‐to‐face focus groups, direct observations and analysis of official documentation sourced from the referred EUMSAs. The resulting insights highlight the need for substantial improvements in institutional gender policies. Particularly, while efforts have been made to instill gender sensitivity within fitness assessments, their impact has been disappointingly limited. Furthermore, the practice of assigning military roles based solely on gender has been found to undermine both effectiveness and fairness within the schools/academies. Conversely, an encouraging sentiment pervades among the student body, advocating for a curriculum that incorporates gender‐related subjects into the EUMSA educational framework (curriculum). This suggests a growing recognition of the importance of addressing gender issues not only in policy but also in practice, signalling a promising shift towards a more inclusive and equitable environment within the EUMSAs.

A ‘Europe of defence’? The establishment of binding commitments and supranational governance in European security and defence

ABSTRACT Cooperation between EU member-states in the field of security and defence is increasingly difficult to reconcile with the notion of intergovernmentalism. The decisions to establish the European Defence Fund (EDF), Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO), the Coordinated Annual Review of Defence (CARD) and most recently the European Defence Industry Reinforcement Through Common Procurement Act (EDIRPA) have resulted in integrative commitments between EU member-states. In order to account for these commitments, we must analyse the positions and perspectives of key (France, Germany, Italy, and Spain) EU member-states. The article adds to the literature on European integration in two respects. First, by developing indicators to identify and establish the extent to which a move beyond intergovernmentalism has taken place. Second, through the application of a comprehensive approach, which is required in order to understand why EU security and defence integration has come about.