European Museums Research Articles

Ethical entanglements: human remains, museums and ethics in a European perspective

Abstract The ethical treatment of human remains after excavation is a core debate in archaeology. This project explores the treatment of human remains in some European museums with an aim to support open discussion of complex ethical issues among research and heritage professionals involved in the care of human remains.

Implementation of Saving Function as the Main Function in Activities of European Visual Arts Museums during World War Two

The purpose of the article is to research the saving function implemented by the personnels of the visual arts museums during the Second World War on the territory of Ukraine and of the Western European countries, research the actions of the museum workers seen as sociocultural projects from a scientific point of view. The research methodology lies in the application of historical methods due to which the origin and the development of historical processes and events are being explored in their chronological order with the scope of finding out the historical connections and patterns by means of a modern analysis of how the museum workers fulfilled their positions' tasks during the war. Empirical and theoretical methods are being used. Such methodological research allows the explorers to analyse the ways of the task fulfilment aimed at saving as the main function of all the activities carried out by European art museums during the wars in the twentieth century. The scientific novelty is in a new generalising scientific view on the fulfilment of their positions' tasks by museum workers and military men of a specially founded unit whose goal was to save the museum objects of the world's art heritage under the threat of illegal deeds of the aggressor country. Conclusions. The sociocultural planning of the activities of the European museums' workers used the stereotyped marketing methods aimed at the implementation of saving as the main function. It is necessary to point out that, due to full-scale hostilities on the European territory, the priority function the museums workers wanted to implement was saving and evacuation of museum collections from the hostilities area, as well as conservation works. After the evacuation and restoration in a safe area, the museum personnels, when it was possible, focused their attention on the function of the art works' exhibition.

"Such pushing and shoving… and the smell! Why ever would they allow these people in to the Academy” sociability and body language of Madrid's museums visitors (19th century)

In 1828 preparations were being made for the opening of the first public museum in Spain: the Royal Prado Museum. Along with the placement of the works of art and the control of their security, visitors were an essential part of the organisation of the establishment. Although the valued role of museums as democratisers of culture has been emphasised, more recent studies have observed that the first visitors to European museums were not from all social strata. This article aims to analyse the public museum as an arena of sociability and to investigate the involvement of social elites in both the control of access and the imposition of behavioural models within these "temples of the arts.” For this reason, this paper approaches the debate around the concept of citizenship. On the one hand, it explores the gradual opening of museums to all social classes and the social debates surrounding it. On the other hand, it analyses the use of the museum as a space of symbolic battle for the appropriation of these scenarios and the creation of exclusion dynamics to limit interactions between social classes. Therefore, the text analyses, among other sources of analysis, the body language of visitors. An object of study that has been understudied but which can offer us interesting answers.

Weaving the past into the future

Silk played a crucial role in driving progress in Europe, particularly along the network of production and market centres along the Western Silk Road. The silk trade not only facilitated the exchange of ideas and innovations but also had a huge impact on the economic, technical, functional, cultural, and symbolic levels. However, silk heritage has become critically endangered, despite the existence of many specialised European museums dedicated to its preservation. These museums often lack the resources and capacity to utilise state-of-the-art digital technology. The objective of this paper is twofold: to introduce SILKNOW, an interdisciplinary project funded by the H2020 Program of the European Union to preserve and promote the heritage of silk textiles, and to present the project results which were possible thanks to digital humanities.

The silk roads and shared heritage in Europe: Beyond ‘China to Rome’

This article offers critical engagement with ideas of shared heritage, considering representation of the silk roads in Europe as a counterpoint to their representation in China. Often cast as a ‘bridge’ between ‘East and West’ or ‘China and Rome’ (e.g. UNESCO’s description of the Silk Road Heritage Corridors), the silk roads are regularly depicted as an abstraction of interconnection. And as an abstraction, the idea of shared heritage is often emptied of its potential to communicate greater understanding of the past, respect for cultural difference and co-dependency, or to invite reflection on forms of community constituted through shared histories. Exploring the Sinicization of the silk roads, we argue that much of the rhetoric of shared heritage is deceptively exclusive. We turn to consider the depiction of these histories of trade within Europe, offering a discursive analysis of metatexts around the United Nations World Tourism Organization/European Commission Western Silk Road tourism project, with some discussion of the representation of ancient trade at different European museums. We argue that an enduring legacy of the silk roads’ romanticized image and the transcription of this into commercial tourism inhibit their potential as a useful metanarrative for the future because it fails to communicate the complexity of the past, particularly histories of violence and inequality. However, considering recent depiction of the amber roads, we argue that histories of trade can nevertheless be mobilized towards a more nuanced understanding of the past and a critical reflection on the past and present.

Spreading the “scientific approach”: the chemical turn in conservation from the Musée d’ethnographie du Trocadéro to colonial museums in the French empire

ABSTRACT This text retraces the installation of the laboratory in the Musée d’ethnographie du Trocadéro in the 1930s. It questions the ambitions that lay behind the “scientific” conception of museum conservation as promoted by the museum’s technical assistant, Adrien Fédorovsky, in parallel with many other European museums. Particular attention is paid to chemical methods of conservation and the setting up of toxic chambers. The products used and their suppliers are documented, and overlaps with other social fields sketched out. Finally, the text traces the spread of chemical conservation methods to planned and completed museums in the French empire.

Faces Revealed Project and ancient Egyptian yellow coffins: A new methodology step-by-step.

Faces Revealed Project established a new methodology for studying the geometry of the human forms and facial features realized on anthropoid yellow coffins of Ancient Egypt. Since 1980, yellow coffins have been the subject of various studies mainly focused on iconography and palaeography. However, these anthropoid coffins are three-dimensional objects with well-rendered masks and detailed facial features as well as forearms, hands and bellies. This lack of analysis in the study of coffins may be due to the fact that they are "concealed" by rich and multi-coloured decoration, so they are not easily visible in all their forms to the naked eye. Today new technologies allow us to go more in-depth and digitally switch off the decoration and observe these "invisible" features. As this is an entirely new process, the primary task of the Faces Revealed Project was to establish a new methodology from the photogrammetric survey to the data collection. The present article discusses in detail the stages of the Project applied to around 100 Egyptian yellow coffins stored in Museums in Europe, the United States and Egypt and the information that they can disclose. The task is to share with the scientific community the established protocol and offering the possibility to "work independently" applying the same methodology to the same objects as well as to other classes of material.

Of Goavddis and Runic calendars

Sámi artefacts are today exhibited in numerous European museums. Since the Renaissance, members of the educated elites were fascinated by the North and acquired Sámi items for their private cabinets of curiosities. Over the centuries most of these collections were dispersed. In a few cases though, some of the items once in these modern collections re-emerged from the past, to be displayed in contemporary museums. This is the case for a few Sámi artefacts currently part of Italian and Vatican collections: a goavddis and a Sámi runic calendar. The paper retraces the stories and histories of these objects, addressing colonial practices and ideologies connected with the acquisition of Indigenous artefacts in Modern Europe. In doing so, this contribution highlights how the presence of these coveted commodities in early museums bore witness to entangled colonial histories.

Metodologías colaborativas en arqueología: reflexiones teóricas y avances prácticos en torno al patrimonio, su investigación y difusión

Centered around the questions of “whose” and “for whom” heritage is, this article explores various approaches in South America aimed at achieving a public archaeology that is inclusive and beneficial to communities. While the reflections and most case studies primarily focus on indigenous societies, specific efforts to develop collaborative methodologies that include other groups or collectives are also discussed. To provide a comprehensive view, a general review of relevant literature from different parts of the continent has been conducted, synthesizing it to present the state of the art on collaborative methodologies in the Americas, with a focus on South America. The core concepts addressed are heritage and community, their interrelationship, and the diverse ways their connection is crucial today, particularly in terms of collaborative methodologies in various research projects. The discussion highlights how the interpretation and presentation of the past become significant aspects when transitioning from theory to the practice of collaborations. After presenting several previously published examples and the articles comprising this dossier, the article concludes that significant advances have been made in the last decades in developing collaborative methodologies in archaeology. This progress marks a positive path toward the pluralization of the discipline. As an original contribution, the article offers a comparative reflection on collaborative work with communities in museums in Europe and the Americas, evaluating approaches and advancements. It concludes that researchers in the Americas have an advantage: working with materials that are closely connected to the groups that consider them their heritage, or considering themselves the heirs, allows for a more intimate and legitimate approach.

The specimens of green anaconda, Boa murina Linnaeus, 1758 (Squamata, Serpentes, Boidae, Eunectes), from the collection of Albertus Seba, and recommendations for tracing historical specimens

In a recent publication, Dubois et al. (2024) reviewed in detail the type material of Boa murina Linnaeus, 1758, now known as Eunectes murinus, and designated a specimen figured in Seba (1735), that is considered lost, as its lectotype. Here we explore the known details of the relevant dispersal routes for Seba’s Eunectes specimens and discuss the probabilities of their existence in several European museums. Based on this example, we provide recommendations for the identification of specimens used by historical authors like Seba as the basis for illustrations in their works.

Preservation of Plastic Cultural Heritage. A Review

This article deals with the broad topic of the conservation of plastics, which, as objects of historical or artistic value an essential part of collections all around the world. This review focuses on the risks associated with plastic art, its degradation pathways, methods of identification and characterization, and currently used methods of preservation. Besides the literature review, an online survey of European museums and galleries was conducted, which allowed us to gain an overview of the current state of plastic conservation. Twelve institutions participated in the survey and there is a marked difference in the level of information regarding plastics in their collections. The results underline the relevance and urgency of this issue if we want to prevent the irreversible losses of cultural heritage, as many institutions do not have the means to ensure the effective protection of plastic artifacts. The study of available resources shows us that great progress has been made in recent years, but further research and improvement are still needed.

Mysteries surrounding the Hector’s Dolphin holotype Electra hectori P.-J. Van Beneden, 1881

ABSTRACT For more than 140 years, the type locality of the Hector’s dolphin, Cephalorhynchus hectori [Van Beneden 1881] and the whereabouts of the holotype have been in question. The species was based on a specimen from New Zealand, sent to Otto Finsch in Germany. Finsch forwarded the specimen to Pierre-Joseph Van Beneden in Belgium who described it as Electra hectori, without specifying whether its location was the NE coast of the South or the North Island. Of the six persons who may have shipped out the holotype, von Haast, Hutton, or Travers are the most likely; Potts, Hector and Buller are less plausible. The connections between NZ and European museums were analysed. Based on our review and the rarity of records from the NE coast of the North Island, we believe that the NE coast of the South Island should be considered the type locality, consistent with the nomenclature of the two subspecies C. h. hectori and C. h. maui. The holotype was partially destroyed at Leuven Museum during WWII, while remaining bones, transferred to the national museum in Brussels, possibly in 1964, were lost. Finally, we propose to change the species name to Aotearoa dolphin, to distinguish from the true Hector’s dolphin, the nominate subspecies C. hectori hectori.

The question of looted heritage return in contemporary international relations: Middle East as a case-study

The problem of destruction and looting of cultural heritage has long been a serious problem for the international community. Despite a significant number of various multilateral agreements, resolutions and recommendations of international organizations, the methods and means of combating such crimes remain insufficient. This is partly due to the fact that the trade in cultural property is a lucrative business, and countries are in no hurry to introduce strict controls on the movement of artifacts. Countries from which heritage is extracted and sold on the black market are asking for the return of stolen property. This article examines the problem of the return or restitution of cultural heritage to countries of origin on the example of the Middle East region. The study aims to trace the public discourse about the return of stolen artifacts to countries such as Iraq, Syria, Libya, and Yemen from Western Europe and the United States. Using quantitative and qualitative content analysis to study documents, media discourse and official statements, we examine how the issue of restitution and return of heritage, often located in European and American museums, is presented in the public sphere of the countries studied. The results show that the process of “decolonization” of European museums is slow and difficult, since the public consciousness still retains the image of the “other”: a weak, dependent, conflict-ridden, unstable Middle East, unable to take care of its own heritage.

Nothing Lasts Forever? Considering Lifespans in a Contemporary Collection

ABSTRACT For many European museums, caring for their collections ‘in perpetuity’ was implied or stated explicitly in their founding acts. However, as heritage science has developed as a discipline, the reality of eternal lifespans began to be questioned, and work on lighting guidelines led to a target lifespan of 500 years being adopted by many museums. This is often not feasible for the ephemeral materials more frequently found in contemporary artworks, which can break down quickly. Furthermore, for contemporary artworks with relevance to particular social or political circumstances, keeping them into the distant future may not feel essential. These factors, coupled with concerns about the financial and environmental impact of storing and caring for an ever-expanding volume of heritage material, have sparked new conversations about collection lifespans. This paper discusses lifespans for contemporary art, referring to the collection belonging to the National Galleries of Scotland (NGS), and outlining several potential approaches. A nuanced and honest approach is arguably required, which should include exploring the artist’s intent, identifying the critical elements of each artwork, and deciding how to manage change, while factoring in stakeholder perspectives and resourcing considerations. Such an approach would involve accepting the reality and inevitability of shorter lifespans for some artworks and could be considered the epitome of environmental sustainability.

Occupation and Communism in Eastern European Museums: Re-Visualizing the Recent Past ed. by Constantin Iordachi and Péter Apor (review)

Occupation and Communism in Eastern European Museums: Re-Visualizing the Recent Past ed. by Constantin Iordachi and Péter Apor (review)

From Galls to Cecidological Herbaria: The Role of Gall Collections in Modern Life Sciences.

Galls (also known as cecidia) have been studied by botanists, zoologists and microbiologists over the last century. Indeed, galls can be induced by different animals, bacteria, viruses and fungi, so that their presence simultaneously attested the presence of specific host plants and gall-inducing species. Consequently, gall collections, also known as cecidological herbaria or cecidological collections, can be interesting to study biodiversity changes over time. This review describes the main cecidological collections currently available in different European museums in order to stimulate their future study. The present analysis suggests that well-organized and preserved cecidological collections have great potential to guide research in taxonomy and systematics. Furthermore, this review aims to encourage future research on the conservation and digitisation standards of gall specimens in order to make cecidological data more accessible to researchers.

Green public procurement in the most visited European museums: a comparison and a mapping

While scholarly research on green public procurement (GPP) keeps growing, until now it has paid little attention to museums that must make decisions about GPP implementation. This paper breaks new ground by exploring GPP implementation in the most visited European museums. The proposed conceptual framework allows a comparison and a mapping of museums’ GPP implementation levels while taking account of how these levels are related to the national GPP performance. Complementing this framework with the analysis of the up-to-date data from the Tender Electronic Daily database yields two central findings. First, museums that formalized their GPP policies in their strategic organizational documents exhibit higher levels of GPP implementation than other museums that have not done so. Second, the majority of the investigated museums follow national trends of GPP implementation, with examples of exceeding or falling below these trends being rare. The article is important for policy makers and practitioners as it highlights the importance of the factor of institutionalization of green procurement in individual organizations, which is crucial for successful implementation of green procurement.

The Field Collector, Ethnographer, and Scholarly Networker: Annie Marion Rivett-Carnac and her Collection of Indian Jewellery

This article explores the significance of gender in understanding the formation of Indian collections in European museums, and how the activities of a single collector sheds light on the role of the individual and wider society. It focuses on Annie Marion Rivett-Carnac’s (1843–1935) contribution to multiple European museums over a period of over forty years. She amassed a personal collection of 6,000 to 8,000 items, brought together during her life in India alongside her husband. Her assemblage consisted of Indian body ornaments, jewellery, and items used in religious and daily practices, which she used to form networks with eminent figures in anthropology and ethnography in Europe, some outside of Britain’s traditional networks of British imperial collectors. While her husband has a prominent presence through his donations to museums, membership of learned societies and publications, little is known about her. Her contributions to museum collections in Britain, Germany and Sweden have largely gone unstudied, which this article seeks to address. It argues that Rivett-Carnac used her collections and the emergence of ethnography in Europe and British India as a way to position herself as a serious and respected scholar.

Calculating the Greenhouse Gas Emissions of the Central Depot of the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna – First Results of the Pilot Study

ABSTRACT Museums are important actors in the fight against climate change. In order to limit global warming to a maximum of 1.5° Celsius, European museums are required to reduce their CO2 emissions to contribute to climate protection. The first step towards reducing the CO2 footprint of a building is to know about its current status. The acquisition and analysis of an organization’s emissions is performed by means of a CO2 balance; this evaluation identifies relevant action, indicates the saving potential, and enables a prioritization of procedures. In the museum sector, the carbon footprinting is a relatively new concept. The first initiatives in the German-speaking countries focus on the portions of museums used for exhibits. As part of her dissertation, the author started a pilot project with the KHM-Museumsverband (KHM Museum Association) in Austria to document CO2 emissions in the storage areas of the museum. The Competence Center for Climate Neutrality at the Center for Global Change and Sustainability at the BOKU – (Universität für Bodenkultur Wien, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna) – offered valuable expertise to support this study. This article provides the first insights into the research project, which started in fall 2021 and presents preliminary results of the case study.

Indoor air pollutants and their seasonal monitoring in European museums

The monitoring of indoor air pollutants is an important part of the management of heritage collections. In this work, acetic acid, formic acid, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and NO2 were measured with passive samplers along with temperature and relative humidity once per season in seven European institutions of different sizes with different types of objects. The measurements were carried out in a variety of locations, from modern and old display cases in exhibition rooms of different sizes to storage rooms and their enclosures for different types of objects. The results were evaluated based on the characteristics of the sampling locations and the extent to which the changing seasons affect pollutant concentrations were estimated. The dataset obtained from this study can be a valuable asset as a snapshot of the current state of the environment in European heritage collections.