European Launcher Research Articles

Aerothermal characterization of the CALLISTO vehicle during descent

AbstractAerothermal loads are a design driving factor during launcher development as the thermal loads directly influence thermal protection system (TPS) design and successively the possible flight trajectory and mission profiles. Recent developments in reusable launch vehicles (RLV) (e.g. SpaceX, Blue Origin) have added the dimension of refurbishment to the challenges the thermal design must consider. With the current European launcher roadmap moving towards a reusable first stage aerothermal loads may significantly change. The CALLISTO vehicle is a flight demonstrator for future reusable launcher stages and their technologies developed by a tri-national consortium and planned to fly in 2025. For this vehicle the highest heat fluxes are mainly due to heating from hot exhaust gases and heated air in the proximity of the aft bay and on the exposed structures like legs and fins. In the presented study we conducted computational fluid dynamics (CFD) studies to determine the aerothermal loads on the vehicle during descent through the landing approach corridor for both phase B and phase C aeroshapes. A defining difference to previous aerothermal databases (ATD) is that the CALLISTO demonstrator is planned to execute a series of test flights with different energy levels, as well as a final demo flight. This leads to an large parameter space the final aerothermal database needs to cover. The database development is described in detail and analysed for integral and local loads, as well as interpolation uncertainties. The final phase C database allows interpolation of interface heatfluxes for the entire flight domain (Mach number, density $$\rho )$$ ρ ) at varying angle of attack (AoA). Further the sensitivity of the plume-vehicle interaction to angle of attack, chemistry, thrust vector control (TVC) and engine throttling are investigated for a critical Mach number indicating further areas of improvement for future databases.

The “Ariadne’s Space Thread” for France and Europe in the mid-twentieth and twenty-first centuries

In the twenty-first century, the importance of space exploration is increasing in the economic, political, and military spheres of social life. In this article, the author analyses, starting from the twentieth century, the historical experience of gaining access to space in the countries of Western Europe, including its regional integration association, the European Union, by means of launch vehicles. The absence of a detailed study of the role of France in the process of creating the first European launch vehicle in Russian historiography determines its novelty. The source base comprises archives, documents and materials of the French National Assembly, official structures of the EU and the European Space Agency (ESA), research articles, monographs drawing on memoirs. The purpose of the study is to analyze the history of the development and establishment of the French and European space exploration programs using the Ariane family of launch vehicles and the role of France in these processes. The author’s objectives are to identify the historical role of scientists from Germany, defeated in World War II, in the creation of France’s scientific and technical base, which allowed it to become the only nuclear power in the EU in the second half of the twentieth century and one of the world leaders in space exploration; to consider the process of providing autonomous access to space for Western Europe by creating its own launch vehicles with the key financial and technical contribution by France and with the participation of ESA; to analyse the role of space technologies and programmes in ensuring security, organizing reconnaissance from space. An analysis of the sources and literature on the topic leads to the conclusion that the pricing policy in the European space industry and strategic competition with space powers prevents European launch vehicles from strengthening their position in this market and achieving autonomy from third countries in access to outer space. Despite the long experience of post-war scientific and technological research and related advances in space exploration, it is difficult for France and Europe to achieve strategic autonomy in this important branch of human endeavour.

Overview of system study on recovery methods for reusable first stages of future European launchers

AbstractThe design of a reusable launch vehicle implies the need to provide for a means to safely retrieve the component to be re-used. Following economic considerations, reusable launch vehicle concepts tend to be designed such that large parts, like entire stages, are to be recovered. These are usually significant in size and weight and have acquired a considerable amount of energy during their primary mission. This poses the challenge of how to recover them in a way that makes it available for further re-uses. In the past and present, different methods were and are used. Depending on the selected recovery method, the system design is very different necessitating different technologies and competencies to be acquired for a successful design. Two major classes of recovery methods can be distinguished: those recovery methods ending with a vertical landing of the reusable stage and those ending with a horizontal landing. Both have their own benefits and drawbacks. In 2016, The German Aerospace Centre DLR has initiated a large in-house study with the aim of investigating, in a comparative manner on system level, both classes of recovery methods on a system level for two-stage-to-orbit launch vehicles with a reusable first stage and an expendable upper stage to be operated within a European context. Fuel choice and engine cycle were major design parameters that were considered during the study. The present paper presents the framework of this study describing the adopted study logic, providing an overview of the major findings obtained at the end of the first study phase and gives an outlook to the work of the second study phase. It ends with providing a view of a possible demonstrator and technology roadmap toward the realization of an operational two-stage-to-orbit launch system with a reusable first stage.

Ariane 6 – in-flight safety and space debris mitigation

Ariane 6 is the future large European Launcher launched from the Guiana Space Center (CSG). Besides, Ariane 6 launcher program corresponds to the first full application of the French Space Operations Act from the beginning of an European Launch System development.This paper summarizes how French Space Operations Act requirements have been finally implemented in the Ariane 6 Launcher System. It addresses hardware systems as well as software solutions, but also specific analysis performed to support compliance with the French Space Operations Act requirements. This paper identifies the definition and design of these different on-board systems contributing to flight safety and space debris mitigation along with their validation. Moreover it details the studies that have been performed to assess Ariane 6 compliance to the requirements of French Space Operations Act.This document addresses more specifically safety in flight beginning at lift-off and ending with launcher disposal after its main mission. Afterwards it covers also solutions implemented on Ariane 6 launcher and its mission definition in order to mitigate space debris generation.

Cost estimation for launch vehicle families considering uncertain market scenarios

When optimizing the staging of a launch vehicle, usually a reference mission with a fixed payload mass is used to determine the specific launch cost (or a surrogate thereof, e.g. total mass or dry mass). While this approach neglects suboptimal loading, it delivers sufficiently good results for the evaluation of an individual launcher if the design mission is well known. However, this approach does not capture the full range of payloads that a launch vehicle is expected to launch during its operational lifetime. In order to estimate the cost and subsequently optimize the staging of such launch vehicle families, a full launch scenario has to be considered. The cost of an individual launch vehicle loses importance and the deciding factor is the total cost associated with launching the specified scenario. However, estimates of the future market inevitably include large uncertainties. These uncertainties and their impact are ideally considered and quantified when assessing the specific recurring cost of a single launch vehicle. The consideration of a whole launch market scenario is especially relevant when evaluating a family of launch vehicles, an option currently being discussed for future European launchers. In this case, the distribution of the payloads onto the different members of the launch vehicle family has to be optimized in order to reach the lowest possible cost. Within this manuscript, a method that allows the determination of the recurring cost of such a launcher family based on a launch market scenario including uncertainties is proposed. Based on the launch numbers derived from the combinatorial optimization, parametric cost models for recurring and non-recurring cost are adapted and applied to three possible future launch vehicle families.

LISAmax: improving the low-frequency gravitational-wave sensitivity by two orders of magnitude

Within its Voyage 2050 planning cycle, the European Space Agency is considering long-term large class science mission themes. Gravitational-wave astronomy is among the topics under study. Building on previous work by other authors (Folkner 2011 (NNH11ZDA019L); Ni 2010 Mod. Phys. Lett. A 25 922–35; Sesana et al 2021 Exp. Astron. 51 1333–83), this paper studies a gravitational-wave interferometer concept, dubbed ‘LISAmax’, consisting of three spacecraft, each located close to one of the Sun–Earth libration points L3, L4 and L5, forming a triangular constellation with an arm length of 259 million kilometers (to be compared to LISA’s 2.5 million kilometer arms). We argue that this is the largest triangular formation that can be reached from Earth without a major leap in mission complexity and cost (hence the name). The sensitivity curve of such a detector is at least two orders of magnitude lower in amplitude than that of LISA, at frequencies below 1 mHz. This makes the observatory sensitive to gravitational waves in the µHz range and opens a new window for gravitational-wave astronomy, not covered by any other planned detector concept. We analyze in detail the constellation stability for a 10 year mission in the full numerical model including insertion dispersion, and self-gravity-induced accelerations. We compute the orbit transfers using a European launcher and chemical propulsion. Different orbit options, such as precessing, inclined orbits, the use of flybys for the transfer, and the launch strategy, are discussed. The payload design parameters are assessed, and the expected sensitivity curve is compared with a number of potential gravitational-wave sources. No show stoppers are identified at this point of the analysis.

Investigation of the landing dynamics of a reusable launch vehicle and derivation of dimension loading for the landing leg

The EU has deemed it crucial to maintain its own independent access to space. To foster the European industry competitiveness, the cost of the European launch systems needs to be reduced and flexibility needs to be improved. The development of reusable launch vehicle (RLV) is currently changing the global market of space transportation systems and is promising immense cost savings. Within this context, MT Aerospace has been investigating the configurations and possible solutions for landing structures at touch-down in the European Funded H2020 project RETALT. This includes the down-selection of previous designs to the current configuration for RETALT1 (Marwege et al. in System definition report, 2022) and the corresponding architecture of the structural landing leg. A screening of the overall requirements down to driving parameters which have the most significant impact on the structural design is done. Landing events like “nominal” simultaneously four leg touch-down landings and critical single leg manoeuvres are analysed to evaluated safe configurations for landing. These investigations have a major influence on the specification of the launcher.

Safety on ground operations on Ariane 6 Launch System

Ariane 6 is the next heavy European launch system of the Ariane family under development. The ground tests operations have started, combining the Launcher System and Launch Base elements. Those Combined Tests are the Flight Model 0 campaign of Ariane 6, aiming to provide a sound basis to enter in the launch campaign from Flight Model 1 onwards. Building on the expertise acquired with Ariane 5 and on years of feedback from its customers, the project has been developed based on the State of the Art; and Ariane 6 combines innovations allied with the unparalleled reliability of the Ariane family.Safety is key when it comes to managing risks in space. Safety engineering carries out a launch campaign where people, assets, environment are protected against hazardous scenarios anytime on ground and in flight. The Dependability (Reliability, Availability, Maintainability) and Safety methodology involves a series of project milestones which ensure that the progress of development meets all the conditions necessary for attaining the objectives throughout the overall development phase.This paper describes how the Safety is ensured, focusing on ground operations, considering the challenges the Ariane 6 project has faced in the frame of the construction of the completely new Launch Pad, allied to the additional flexibility and versatility options proposed at Launcher System level to guarantee a competitive access to space and provide multiple adaptations depending on the mission.

Managing risk in space: The space industry regulations 2021 and the new UK legal framework

ArianeGroup as the industrial prime contractor of the next European launcher Ariane 6 has developed since 2012 a tool suite with the collaboration of CNES. This tool suite is dedicated to the prediction of fragmentation and survivability of space vehicle and especially of launchers (Finzi et al., 2017). It includes a detailed digital mock-up of the spacecraft, a combined 3D aerodynamic and aerothermodynamic code, a six degrees-of-freedom trajectory simulator which are coupled with commercial thermomechanical finite element software (SAMCEF®) and a thermodynamic code for the response of the propellant tanks (SITTARE). Once the fragmentation is detected thanks to engineering criteria, a list of debris is built and a statistical analysis of the survivability of all debris is computed with ADRYANS® (Bertorello et al., 2017), an object-orientated in-house code.The elaboration of the safety file is a critical phase in the development of a new launcher and must be cross-checked with independent software and methodologies (Dias, 2017). This is the responsibility of the CNES Space Safety Office. Even if each brick of the tool suite is validated through many years of experience in hypersonic flight vehicle development, confrontation of the global simulation results with experimental measurement are always of great interest. However, such flight experiences and or inboard measurements are very rare. The test case that is being studied since 2017 is the observed reentry of the Ariane 5 EPC of the V518 flight that launched the Rosetta probe (Lips et al., 2008).As the tool suite has evolved since the first version of the test case that was presented in Finzi et al. (2017), this paper aims at presenting updated results incorporating the influence of the materials enhanced database, propellant thermodynamic implementation and thermomechanical simulation of the stage for fragmentation analysis. The results include the estimation of the altitude of first fragmentation for the entire stage and are compared to previous studies (Finzi et al., 2017).

Update of the Ariane 5 EPC test case with the fragmentation and survivability tool suite of ArianeGroup

ArianeGroup as the industrial prime contractor of the next European launcher Ariane 6 has developed since 2012 a tool suite with the collaboration of CNES. This tool suite is dedicated to the prediction of fragmentation and survivability of space vehicle and especially of launchers (Finzi et al., 2017). It includes a detailed digital mock-up of the spacecraft, a combined 3D aerodynamic and aerothermodynamic code, a six degrees-of-freedom trajectory simulator which are coupled with commercial thermomechanical finite element software (SAMCEF®) and a thermodynamic code for the response of the propellant tanks (SITTARE). Once the fragmentation is detected thanks to engineering criteria, a list of debris is built and a statistical analysis of the survivability of all debris is computed with ADRYANS® (Bertorello et al., 2017), an object-orientated in-house code.The elaboration of the safety file is a critical phase in the development of a new launcher and must be cross-checked with independent software and methodologies (Dias, 2017). This is the responsibility of the CNES Space Safety Office. Even if each brick of the tool suite is validated through many years of experience in hypersonic flight vehicle development, confrontation of the global simulation results with experimental measurement are always of great interest. However, such flight experiences and or inboard measurements are very rare. The test case that is being studied since 2017 is the observed reentry of the Ariane 5 EPC of the V518 flight that launched the Rosetta probe (Lips et al., 2008).As the tool suite has evolved since the first version of the test case that was presented in Finzi et al. (2017), this paper aims at presenting updated results incorporating the influence of the materials enhanced database, propellant thermodynamic implementation and thermomechanical simulation of the stage for fragmentation analysis. The results include the estimation of the altitude of first fragmentation for the entire stage and are compared to previous studies (Finzi et al., 2017).

Composite grid structure technology for space applications

This paper presents the general aspects of the technological development of three applications in composite Grid structure for payloads and launch vehicles, within the framework of ESA projects. Two applications are devoted to payloads structures, that is, a central tube for medium-class satellite platforms and a boom segment for deployable antennas, whereas the third application concerns the conical interstage 2/3 of the new European launcher VEGA C, that CIRA is developing in partnership with Avio, whose qualification phase is currently in progress.The paper discloses part of the development activities of the mentioned Grid structures, including the preliminary design approach and the material selection criterion that are integrated with a patented deposition process based on dry Filament Winding and resin liquid infusion. This overall technology development, in light of the different readiness levels and goals of respective projects, has proven the possibility to provide highly efficient and low cost solutions for primary Grid structures with various design requirements and dimensions of the shell.

‘There Are Many Other Things More Important to Us Than Space Research’: The Australian Government and the Dawn of the Space Age, 1956–62

This article examines how the Australian government began to formulate its approach to space research, exploring the way it approached the establishment of American tracking stations from 1956, proposals for a civilian space research program in 1959, involvement with British space research and, from 1960, the negotiations for the European Launcher Development Organisation use of rocket testing facilities at Woomera. It argues that financial and strategic considerations were foremost in the minds of the Menzies government in shaping its approach to space policy, in particular in the context of rocket testing at Woomera. Ultimately, while the decisions taken between 1956 and 1962 laid the foundations for significant and often celebrated Australian involvement in space during the 1960s, the way in which these decisions were made reflected a reluctance to be involved at all.

Editorial: Coral Reefs in the Anthropocene – Reflecting on 20 Years of Reef Conservation UK

The term “Anthropocene” has been suggested as the current epoch (denoting the current geological age) and is viewed as the period where human-based activity is the dominant influence on climate and the environment (Lewis and Maslin, 2015). Arguably, one of the most prevalent and visible effects of this anthropogenic activity has manifested in the equatorial tropics—where coral reef ecosystems have suffered alarming declines (Pandolfi et al., 2003; Hughes et al., 2017). For example, recent increases in mass bleaching events brought about by prolonged periods of elevated sea surface temperatures highlight a worrying trend, with predictions that over half of reefs will experience annual severe bleaching before 2050 (van Hooidonk et al., 2016). For this reason, coral reefs have often been referred to as “canaries in the coal mine” for the marine biome. Yet reefs continue to be crucial sources of food, protection, livelihoods, and cultural identity for many people around the world (Teh et al., 2013; Hicks and Cinner, 2014; Lau et al., 2019). It is therefore critical that the link between healthy reefs, food security, and sustainable community livelihoods is maintained into the future. This Research Topic represents the proceedings for the European Coral Reef Symposium (ECRS), which took place 13th–15th December, 2017 in Oxford, UK. ECRS was organised by the Reef Conservation United Kingdom (RCUK) committee, in association with the Zoological Society of London (ZSL), University of Oxford, and the International Coral Reef Society (ICRS). Over 550 coral reef scientists and conservationists joined the meeting for a series of talks, posters, and workshops. In addition to the papers in this Research Topic, ECRS provided a platform for many other coral reef-related events and outputs. For example, the symposium hosted the European launch of the 2018 International Year of the Reef on the 13th December 2017, and several of the workshops produced published outputs (e.g., Turner et al., 2019). In this editorial, we provide a brief history of RCUK—charting the course from inception in 1997 through to ECRS in 2017—including our sustainable conferencing efforts and commitments to diversity and inclusion. We strongly believe that all conferences should carefully consider sustainability, diversity, and inclusion and we hope our efforts will inspire and encourage other conference organisers to do the same. We then introduce the globally relevant coral reef science and conservation that has been presented at RCUK meetings and provide an overview of the papers submitted to this Research Topic. We close by highlighting our vision for RCUK into the future—and lay out how this can be applied to the upcoming Frontiers Spotlight Conference on Coral Reefs.

Studies of CT Applications to Development of Technologies for Space Systems Using Gaseous Propellant

AVIO is a Company leader in manufacturing of products for space primary propulsion. In particular, AVIO production covers Solid Propellant Motors manufacturing for European launchers ARIANE and VEGA. Also, cryogenic stage made at AVIO are installed on these launchers and then research is also involved in development of systems used for liquid propellant applications. In this research new technologies as Additive Manufacturing are well addressed and in this effort a CT technique used as NDT, but also as metric tools, has been investigated. Results are presented in this paper.

Biogen and Samsung Bioepis Announce European Launch of IMRALDI™ (adalimumab), Solidifying Leadership in European Anti-TNF Market.

Biogen and Samsung Bioepis Announce European Launch of IMRALDI™ (adalimumab), Solidifying Leadership in European Anti-TNF Market.

Design-to-safety: Analysis of the explosion and fragmentation influence on inert debris impact footprints and mitigation solutions for innovative launcher concepts

The ever increasing price pressure on the worldwide launch market has shaped the strategy for the next generation of European launchers preparation. In addition to the development of low-cost propulsion technologies based on LOX/CH4, CNES Launchers Directorate, investigate the introduction of reuse of the main stage with a return phase performed by a Toss-Back maneuver, reducing overall costs.These launcher concepts, which have never been operated from French Guiana, give rise to new safety concerns different from those already handled for the launches operated from GSC, challenging the flight safety principles.This article provides an overview of the most critical scenarios, following an accidental explosion, in a Toss-Back maneuver, with an analysis of the effects of the resulting explosion (in terms of energy and fragmentation), and its impact on ground. The main goal is to identify the most critical parameters driving the scenarios’ criticality and to determine the possible risk mitigation measures such as “design-to-safety” solutions.

Derivation of the French Space Operation Act requirements in the specifications of the future European Launcher Ariane 6

Ariane 6 is the future European Launcher launched from The Guiana Space Center. Designed to answer to launcher market expectations for the full range of satellites, any orbits and missions, the Ariane 6 launcher comes in 2 configurations, A62 and A64 corresponding to a design with 2 or 4 side Solid Rocket Motors. The first launch is planned in 2020 with a launch rate objective at full operational capability of 12 over a year.Besides, the Ariane 6 launcher program corresponds to the 1st application of the French Space Operation Act [3] from the beginning of an European Launch System development. The Space Debris Mitigation for European Space Agency projects [4] is also considered as prerequisite for the Ariane 6 launcher development.

The European Union's smart specialisation launch and brand slogan management

This article studies the roots and features of smart specialisation in keeping with the perspectives of brand slogan management. By using the smart specialisation concept in its documents, plans, and regional fieldwork, the European Union (EU) is attempting to be perceived as a growth-efficient organisation. This analysis illustrated that smart specialisation is not reserved for the use of the EU only. Rather, the organisation for economic cooperation and development, World Bank, and international monetary fund have also, albeit to a lesser degree, used the same concept, thereby demonstrating the power of smart specialisation as a slogan. Smart specialisation seems to be the slogan at the EU level; however, several regions in the EU have followed the principles of the smart specialisation process and have transformed the slogan into more powerful regional brands. Although it is possible to interpret smart specialisation as a slogan, it is also a process in which the EU is the rule maker and gatekeeper for funding innovations and investments in the region.

Linear Parameter Varying Control Synthesis for the atmospheric phase VEGA launcher

Abstract This article presents the design of the atmospheric control system of a launch vehicle using the Linear Parameter Varying (LPV) synthesis technique. The main goal is to facilitate the transfer of this technique, already well known for providing a systematic design approach with reduced effort, to the European launcher industrial domain. In this paper, a grid-based LPV approach is applied to the actual VEGA VV05 mission data for the joint design of the rigid-body controller and the flexible bending filter in one single design procedure. The LPV controller is analysed in terms of classical linear stability margins and evaluated and compared with the VEGA baseline controller via Monte-Carlo analyses using a high-fidelity, nonlinear simulator. The results show that the LPV controller provides satisfactory stability margins and excellent performance and robustness characteristics while offering a more systematic and methodological design approach.

A demonstrator of an Ethernet based embedded network in space launchers

The relationships between the French Space Agency (CNES) and the CRAN laboratory are 10 years old. In this framework, the CRAN has studied how the Ethernet standardized network may advantageously replace the old MIL-STD-1553B communication bus which is embedded today in the European launchers. Some classical requirements had to be respected, but specific constraints of the spatial field have been also met. Theoretical studies were leaded, and it was expected by the CNES to validate the academic results through real experimentations on which the results should be confirmed. A demonstrator has been designed which has fulfilled its role, but has also induced new unexpected problematics.