European Green Research Articles

Review of Thermal Calculation Methods for Boilers—Perspectives on Thermal Optimization for Improving Ecological Parameters

This article presents an overview of thermal calculation methods used in boilers powered by fossil fuels (solid, liquid or gas). The analysis was carried out mainly in terms of combustion chamber calculation methods. Changing standards and legal regulations regarding the use of fossil fuels in Europe and the world make it necessary to adapt calculation methods and boiler design to current requirements, and many of them are related to outdated boiler models or for fuels that are no longer so heavily used in industrial solutions. Current research and development trends implemented in the EU and in the world related to the issues of the European Green Deal, the Fit for 55 directive and other ecological trends in the energy sector make it necessary to verify and remodel the calculation methods used so far in terms of the thermal efficiency of the device, fuel consumption or the use of fuels not previously used in their wide range in a wider application. Hence, the knowledge and updating of the state of knowledge in the field of the thermal calculation of boilers in terms of their environmental performance is necessary and strongly sought after by researchers. It is undoubted that in the next few years, boilers will continue to be the main source of thermal energy, especially in the power industry or industry. A reasonable energy transition should be based on the direction of the thermal optimization of already functioning structures and adaptation of their operating parameters to the planned new ecological fuels in the sense of the intensification of energy converted from primary form to thermal energy, and in the last step, it should reorganize the energy and industrial sectors, leaving only these groups of devices treated as a stable and necessary source of energy. Therefore, it should be recognized that activities aimed at improving the thermal parameters of boilers should directly improve the thermal efficiency of the device, and this will translate into fuel savings and reduce their negative impact on the environment.

The Potential Impact of the European Green Deal on Farm Production in Poland

The proposed changes in the European Green Deal require the restructuring of the agricultural sector throughout the European Union. Particularly crucial for the agri-food industry are “From Farm to Fork” strategies and new legislation “for biodiversity,” which are an integral part of the European Green Deal. From an environmental perspective, changes are required immediately, but at the same time, they may reduce agricultural production in Poland. Therefore, this study aims to assess the potential consequences of implementing the European Green Deal principles on Polish agriculture’s productivity. The study is based on two key assumptions which involve a 50% reduction in the use of plant protection products and a 20% reduction in fertilisation. The conducted analyses rely on data from the Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN). The results were obtained by constructing a panel regression model for farms of different economic sizes. Although the most significant reduction in production value may concern the largest farms (using the most fertilisers and plant protection products), the smallest farms may experience the most critical difficulties. The potential decline in crop production in Polish agriculture could be stopped by implementing modern technologies enabling the development of precision and digital agriculture 4.0.

A Conceptual Framework for Safe-and-Sustainable-by-Design to Support Sustainable Business Model Innovation and New Product Development

In order to reach a sustainable future and meet the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs), business model innovation (BMI) needs to explore theoretical and practical intersections of the traditional innovation management (IM) and new product development (NPD) processes with sustainability considerations. New environmental and health policy ambitions such as those presented in the European Green Deal and the EU Chemicals Strategy for Sustainability (CSS) challenge traditional IM theories on BMI and NPD processes. The Safe-and-Sustainable-by-Design (SSbD) concept is a central element of the CSS and demands a novel approach that integrates innovation with safety, sustainability and circularity of materials, products and processes without compromising their functionality or their technical and/or commercial viability. Importantly, adopting such a concept can prevent regrettable substitutions, future liability and brand image issues for companies. To achieve this, companies must design products with minimal environmental impact, adopt circular economy principles, and ensure social responsibility throughout the value chain, whilst economic viable. By doing so, companies contribute to economic, environmental, and social sustainability. In this perspective, a conceptual framework is proposed on how to achieve sustainable BMI and NPD by integrating traditional IM tools with SSbD using life cycle thinking principles considering external and internal drivers.

Book Review: Anne-Christin Mittwoch, Nachhaltigkeit und Unternehmensrecht, Schriften zum Unternehmens - und Kapitalmarkrecht 107, TÜBINGEN (MOHR SIEBECK) 2022.

The increasing acknowledgment that economic development is constrained by planetary boundaries, coupled with heightened societal awareness of climate change, places the transition to a sustainable economy at the forefront of today’s global political agendas. International climate policy commitments such as the Paris Climate Agreement and the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development are shaping the global trajectory of sustainability policy. In the European Union (EU), alongside treaty-based obligations (Art. 3 TEU), the European Green Deal, with its climate neutrality commitment, is laying the groundwork for this transformative change. Recognizing that a sustainable reorientation of the economy necessitates a shift in economic behavior, there is an increasing understanding that companies must play a central role in pursuing sustainability objectives. While public law instruments, such as direct regulatory controls on emissions, have a longstanding tradition of regulating commercial activity, the emerging discourse increasingly emphasizes the role of private law in fostering sustainable business conduct. The monograph "Nachhaltigkeit und Unternehmensrecht" (Sustainability and Company Law), authored by Anne-Christin Mittwoch, substantially contributes to this discussion by exploring to what extent company law is capable of facilitating sustainability objectives.

National eco-social policies in the framework of EU just transition: The cases of Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain

This article examines two questions. First, how far have the green and social policy objectives of the European Green Deal and the Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF) been translated into ‘eco-social policies’ (i.e. demonstrate a ‘socio-ecological’ dimension) in the National Recovery and Resilience Plans (NRRPs) of four of the biggest beneficiary countries, namely, Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain? And, second, how is the role of national welfare states articulated in these eco-social policies to support this just green transition? Our analysis shows first, that, although the analysed NRRPs have a socio-ecological dimension, this is very limited in terms of the share of ‘eco-social’ measures in the total number of policy measures in the NRRPs. Moreover, we find that the role of national welfare states in the identified eco-social policies of the NRRPs in the four country-cases we examine is significantly tilted in favour of what we call ‘benchmarking’ and ‘enabling’ functions, in contrast to what we call ‘buffering’ and ‘consensus-building’ functions. In that sense, the socio-ecological dimension of these national plans seems ‘unbalanced’ in terms of the functions that national welfare states play in it. The article concludes with some reflections on the implications of these findings for the role of EU policy legacies and frameworks and of national welfare states in shaping the emergence of eco-social policies as means to a just green transition and on some methodological challenges for the study of eco-social policies in the context of the European Green Deal and its implementation.

Economic and environmental factors determining spatial variation in soil liming in Poland

The aim of this research was to identify the key factors determining the level of soil liming in Poland. Spatial analyses were conducted using data from the 2020 National Agricultural Census. The study presents regional variations in selected parameters that characterise agricultural production quality and structural features, including the market connections of farms. The Classification and Regression Trees (C&RT) method was employed to identify the factors that most significantly influence the intensity of liming in the examined districts. These factors include the share of permanent grasslands, labour inputs, the percentage of farms engaged in commercial production, farm size, and the level of mineral fertilisation (NPK). The results indicate that regions with larger farms and higher NPK fertilisation tend to apply more lime. In contrast, areas with a higher share of permanent grasslands and labour-intensive activities show lower levels of liming. These findings suggest that improving agricultural practices, particularly in regions with small farms and limited fertilisation, could enhance soil liming efforts and align them with the European Green Deal's goals for sustainable agriculture.

Legal Principles for a European Green Energy Transition

The green energy transition has become a top priority for the European Union (EU) and its Member States. In line with the long-standing recognition of the need for climate change mitigation, recent years have seen a significant intensification of policies promoting this transition. Furthermore, recent global events, such as the pandemic and the Russian invasion of Ukraine, have further influenced EU energy policy. These developments have led to legislative action on many fronts to facilitate the transition towards net-zero, but also to enhance energy security and resilience. This Special Issue focuses on the legal principles governing the European green energy transition, also in the light of major recent developments. This foreword sets the stage by exploring the nature of legal principles in general and by discussing specifics of EU energy law principles. Further, this foreword suggests a differentiation between a) principles that enhance coherence within energy law by reflecting its core values, and b) principles that facilitate the green energy transition by ensuring that legal interpretation aligns with its objectives. Last, the foreword provides an introduction and a brief presentation of the Special Issue articles, which are organized around the abovementioned distinction, and invites readers to explore the articles further.

Decarbonisation Scenarios for the European Residential Sector

The urgency to combat global climate change has prompted the implementation of many regional and national policies, with the European Green Deal standing out as one of the most significant initiatives. We use the recently developed TIMES-Europe energy system model to study the pivotal role of the residential sector in achieving the ambitious energy savings goal formulated by the EU in the broad framework of its Fit-for-55 policy package. We observe improved energy efficiency in households across a set of scenarios that differ in terms of climate policy ambition and level of collaboration between European countries. We find that, by 2030, residential buildings can realize up to 3000 PJ in overall energy savings. Cross-country collaboration may yield an additional 11% reduction in residential energy consumption, which could increase to 18% when combined with dwelling retrofitting subsidies. Our analysis of the transformation of the residential fuel mix, particularly the interplay between biomass and natural gas usage, reveals a trade-off between short-term energy efficiency gains and long-term CO2 reduction goals. In the short run, scenarios lacking stringent climate control measures exhibit higher energy savings in comparison to those embracing ambitious climate targets. This initial difference, however, diminishes over time: energy savings from climate-compliant scenarios nearly align with those in scenarios without strict climate compliance around 2040. Scenarios lacking effective climate policy result in significant delays in decarbonizing the European residential sector. Our findings underscore the critical role of ambitious climate targets and accelerated retrofitting rates, highlighting the necessity to imminently and proactively implement directed policy interventions.

Tracking innovation via green patent classification systems: Are we truly capturing circular economy progress?

The transition to a circular economy (CE) is integral to the European Green Deal, where green technologies improve circularity across the supply chain. Emerging green patent classification systems can be used for finding and identifying trends in green technologies, as well as for tracking CE progress. The lack of harmonization in these systems for green and CE patents is reflected in differences within the emerging literature and what constitutes a CE framework, where metrics are overly-narrow. This creates challenges for strategic patent management in fostering CE innovation.This study evaluates how well patent classifications can be used to measure innovation in green technologies at the global level, and to indicate CE progress via these technologies at the European Union level. By comparing the International Patent Classification (IPC) system’s Green Inventory with the Cooperative Patent Classification (CPC) system, particularly the Y02W class (Climate Change Mitigation Technologies related to wastewater treatment or waste management) used by the EU, we first qualitatively establish the CPC has advantages in comprehensiveness, granularity, and lower risk of misclassification. Next, through an analysis of 1,634 patent abstracts within CPC Y02W filed from 2015-2021, we empirically assess the alignment between each of the 25 patent classes and the EU's 9 CE indicators, using Jacquard similarity index scoring (SIS) and ANOVA statistical tests for significance. We finally subsequently compare these abstracts with the 10 R-imperatives as a CE framework, also using keyword extraction.We identify gaps in the representation of certain CE indicators, and find that that some non-technological R-initiatives, such as repair and remanufacture, may be better captured by other CPC Y02 classes not currently included in EU monitoring. The study concludes that while the CPC Y02-tags provide a more detailed measure of green technology innovation globally and CE progress within the EU, further research is needed to refine the classification systems and ensure comprehensive monitoring of CE progress, particularly regarding non-technological innovations.

Abundance, Sex and Size Distribution of European Green Crabs, Carcinus maenas (Linnaeus, 1785), at Natural and Aquacultured Oyster Areas in Great Bay Estuary, NH

ABSTRACTGreat Bay Estuary (GBE) is a complex estuarine system at the convergence of seven rivers, ocean and land. The GBE ecosystem supports typical estuarine species but, like many estuaries, has been a target of both invasive and range‐expanding species. The goal of this study was to compare abundance, sex and size distribution of green crabs between oyster farm sites and non‐farmed sites within GBE in 2021 and 2022. Overall catch was higher in 2021 compared to 2022. The highest population of green crabs was estimated to be in the farm area around Cedar Point, and natural/restoration area near Moody Point had the smallest European green crab population. In both years, the majority of green crabs captured (98%) were adult males, and few were juveniles captured. At the last sampling date of 2021 and 2022, most crabs were large (68 ± 0.5 mm and 63 ± 2 mm carapace width, respectively). Shellfish growers, restoration and management teams could use these data in mitigation strategies to sustain industries and enhance GBE health. This information is important for oyster restoration initiatives and oyster growers as they may want to: consider putting traps around their restoration reefs and farms to help reduce green crab infestation/predation in their growing areas; make decisions regarding best management practices and optimal growing locations when applying for permits; and work with management teams with gear improvement, such as floating gear, to reduce green crab intrusion into cages. High‐priority locations for trapping should be areas such as oyster farms, oyster reefs and restoration sites.

Enhancing Inner Area Revaluation Through Optional Control Programmes for Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis and Ruminant Paratuberculosis Potentially Linked to Crohn’s Disease in Humans

Regulation (EU) 2016/429 introduces comprehensive guidelines for managing transmissible animal diseases, including zoonoses. The subsequent Commission Implementing Regulation 2018/1882 categorizes these diseases into five groups, each with specific responses, ranging from mandatory eradication to optional eradication or surveillance. Key regulatory priorities include enhanced animal traceability, biosecurity, wildlife pathogen control, sustainable farming practices, and minimizing the impact of diseases on public health, animal health, and the environment. These objectives align with the European Green Deal, the Farm to Fork Strategy, the One Health approach, and the ongoing revaluation of European Inner Areas. They, including the Molise Region in Italy, are often remote, face service accessibility challenges, and suffer from depopulation and farm abandonment. Nonetheless, they hold significant potential for agropastoral and agri-food activities that can support tourism, the commercialization of local products, and recreational pursuits. Implementing optional programmes for animal diseases and zoonoses not subject to mandatory eradication could help the farms of these areas to mitigate productivity losses due to diseases like Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis and Paratuberculosis. The latter is a suspected zoonosis potentially linked to Crohn’s disease in humans. Optional programmes could enhance economic returns, counteract depopulation, support animal welfare and pasture conservation, and reduce the risk of exposure to zoonotic diseases for residents and tourists attracted by the ecological appeal of these areas.

The paradox of inclusion: future engagement or disengagement between the EU and Turkey in the context of the Green Deal

ABSTRACT In December 2019, the EU launched the European Green Deal (EGD). Turkey took an important step and decided to be a part of the EGD. The Green Deal Action Plan was formalized between the EU and Turkey in July 2021. Despite historical fluctuations in EU–Turkey relations, this agreement offers a chance to redefine the framework of their relations. Drawing on environmental diplomacy literature, this article explores the political and economic dimensions of the EGD from various angles. This article addresses how environmental diplomacy might reshape EU–Turkey relations, focusing on the Green Deal’s impact. Examining both multilateral and bilateral engagements, it uncovers potential opportunities and obstacles in their green cooperation. I scrutinize the paradox of inclusion, whether the Green Deal fosters engagement or disengagement between the EU and Turkey, proposing a novel analytical framework for environmental diplomacy in this context – a pioneering effort in such analysis.

FARM TO FORK STRATEGY: A SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION FOR RURAL COMMUNITIES

The Farm to Fork (F2F) strategy, a key pillar of the European Green Deal, offers a comprehensive and sustainable solution for food systems, with particular benefits for rural communities. This strategy emphasizes the transformation of food production, processing, distribution, and consumption to achieve environmental sustainability, economic resilience, and food security. As rural communities often face unique challenges—such as limited access to markets, declining populations, and environmental degradation—the F2F strategy provides an integrated approach to addressing these issues. By promoting shorter supply chains, organic farming, reduced pesticide use, and climate-resilient agricultural practices, the F2F strategy can enhance rural livelihoods while contributing to global climate and health goals. This paper examines the economic, environmental, and social impacts of the F2F strategy on rural communities, and highlights the challenges and opportunities associated with its implementation. It argues that, while the strategy holds great promise for promoting sustainable rural development, its success depends on adequate financial support, infrastructure investments, and education for farmers and stakeholders.

YOUNG FARMERS, SMALL FARMS AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP UNDER THE NEW EUROPEAN UNION GREEN DEAL

The European Union in recent years has adopted and implemented a new policy, the European Green Deal, which aspires to be a comprehensive plan to make the EU economy sustainable by turning climate and environmental challenges into opportunities. At the core of this strategy, is agriculture, as it both contributes to and is affected by climate change. This paper investigates the opportunities and challenges facing young farmers, small farms, and agricultural entrepreneurship under the framework of the Green Deal. Especially, it explores how the Green Deal's goals of climate neutrality, biodiversity preservation, and sustainable food systems impact young farmers, small farms and agricultural entrepreneurship, while identifying ways in which they can align their practices with this new policy framework. The paper concludes with policy recommendations to support young farmers and small-scale agricultural entrepreneurs in achieving sustainability while enhancing their economic viability.

Combined Effects of Treatment and Sewer Connections to Reduce Future Microplastic Emissions in Rivers.

Global mitigation strategies are needed to reduce the amount of microplastics reaching our oceans via rivers. However, what strategies will be most effective, and when and where to implement these strategies is unclear. We applied the global water quality model MARINA-Plastics, covering 10,226 sub-basins worldwide, to assess the effects of different emission reduction strategies on microplastic inputs to rivers worldwide over the period 2010-2100, taking time steps of 10 years. We applied four scenarios: three focused on wastewater treatment technologies, ranging from high to low technology improvement levels, and one combining high technology in wastewater treatment with source-oriented measures. The results show that the combined strategy of high wastewater treatment and source-oriented measures is expected to be the most effective for reducing future microplastics in rivers on a global scale. By 2100, this combined strategy is expected to result in a 68% microplastic reduction in global rivers compared to 2010. African rivers will be the main hotspots, receiving more than five times more microplastics in 2100 than in 2010. In 2100, wear from car tires is expected to be the dominant source of microplastics globally. Our insights support the implementation of the European Green Deal and the realization of Sustainable Development Goal 6 (clean water).

Ecofeminist struggle for epistemic recognition beyond the EU? The case of Akbelen Forest in Turkey

ABSTRACT The European Union (EU), renowned as a green normative power, has adopted ambitious policies to promote a more inclusive and just approach to global climate governance. Existing research has already highlighted how excluding issues related to gender and social inequities from the European Green Deal undermines the EU’s green credentials. Yet, what is often overlooked, is that the EU’s gender- and justice-blind climate policies also perpetuate epistemic injustices, especially beyond its borders. In such contexts, the EU’s asymmetrical power allows it to prioritize its own climate goals while disregarding the unjust policies of incumbents against local climate struggles. This article, however, argues that bottom-up mechanisms can still open epistemic space for marginalized voices and local concerns and promote climate justice beyond the EU. Evidence from a local climate struggle in Muğla-Akbelen, Turkey, demonstrates that bottom-up ecofeminist activism driven by local environmental communities in collaboration with ecology advocates and experts has empowered villagers – especially women – against the hegemonic power structures and contributed to their epistemic recognition. However, despite their efforts, mining activities in the Akbelen forest have not stopped. The article also explores the structural factors that hinder the incorporation of ecofeminist viewpoints in Turkey’s policy-making process, which is becoming increasingly authoritarian.

The Adoption of Taxonomy Requirements to Facilitate the Green Transition of the Buildings Sector

For direct investment towards activities that significantly contribute to the achievement of the European Green Deal objectives, the European Union has adopted “Taxonomy Regulation”, which also applies disclosure requirements to financial institutions that finance the construction, renovation, or acquisition of buildings. For this reason, the financial sector needs methodologies and guidelines, adapted to the national situation, to define the primary energy thresholds to be used when assessing sustainability and financing the acquisition of real estate. This paper presents the methodology developed to identify 15% and 30% of the most energy-efficient national building stock in Lithuania based on EPC data. As a result, functional primary energy indicator (FPEI) threshold values are set for 17 distinct categories of existing buildings built by 31 December 2020. The 15% FPEI thresholds range from 81 kWh/m2 for warehouse buildings to 228 kWh/m2 for swimming pool buildings. Similarly, the 30% FPEI thresholds span from 104 kWh/m2 for warehouses to 303 kWh/m2 for foodservice buildings. The methodologies and threshold values are compared to other countries’ practice and recommendations are provided.

Can a Digital Application for Animal Welfare Self-Assessments by Farmers Help Improve the Welfare of Free-Range and Organic Pigs?

As part of the European Green Deal, the EU has recognised that there is a need to increase organic farming as well as improve animal welfare standards. The PIGLOW app was developed with these goals in mind and allows free-range and organic pig farmers to perform welfare assessments (WAs) of their pigs. The results of each WA contain automated feedback and benchmarking information. The objective of this two-year longitudinal study was to determine whether regular use of the app helps farmers improve pig welfare. Farmers (n = 12) were asked to perform 6 WAs for finisher pigs with the app. At the beginning and end of the study, a researcher visited each farm and performed a detailed WA to determine the welfare status of the pigs at both moments. Farmers (n = 11) also filled out surveys about their opinions on pig welfare and the PIGLOW app. The welfare results did not support that the use of the PIGLOW app had an overall effect on pig welfare, but suggested a positive effect on some specific welfare aspects. Farmers indicated that they found the app easy to use and found most of its elements very useful. However, when asked about the specific influence of the app on their opinions on pig welfare and the welfare of their pigs, they indicated that the app only had small effects. Responses suggested that the app could likely be more useful to new farmers who still have more to learn about animal welfare.

The Impact of Reduced N Fertilization Rates According to the “Farm to Fork” Strategy on the Environment and Human Health

The use of synthetic fertilizers, including nitrogen [N] fertilizers, is an indispensable element in today’s agriculture. Through adequate fertilization, farmers have the opportunity to increase crop yields, which is essential in view of the growing population and demand for food. The European Union’s “Farm to Fork” [F2F] strategy, as part of the broader European Green Deal, aims to promote more sustainable agricultural practices by reducing chemical fertilizer use by 20% by 2030. This initiative is designed to mitigate the negative environmental impacts of excessive N application, such as soil and water contamination, greenhouse gas emissions, and biodiversity loss. In addition to addressing ecosystem concerns, this strategy also aims to reduce health risks associated with N overuse, such as the accumulation of nitrates [NO3−] in crops, which can lead to the formation of carcinogenic compounds. By integrating alternative fertilization methods, the agricultural sector can work toward more resilient and environmentally friendly systems while maintaining productivity. This paper focuses on a summary of the current knowledge about the consequences of N fertilization reduction and its connection to the soil environment, crops, yields, and human health.

Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Trace Element Deposition in Urban Thessaloniki: A Syntrichia Moss Biomonitoring Study

Urban air pollution, especially from heavy metal (HM) contamination, poses significant risks to human health and environmental sustainability. This study investigates the spatial and temporal distribution of HM contamination in Thessaloniki, Greece, using Syntrichia moss as a bioindicator to inform urban environmental management strategies. Moss samples were collected from 16 locations representing diverse urban activity zones (motorway, industrial, city center, airport) in March, May, and July 2024. The concentrations of 12 HMs (Al, Sb, As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Pb, Ni, V, and Zn) were analyzed using ICP-MS, and the contamination factors were calculated relative to controlled moss samples. The results revealed significant spatial variation, with elevated levels of As, Cd, Cr, Pb, and Zn, particularly in high-traffic and industrial zones, exceeding the background levels by up to severe and extreme contamination categories. Temporal trends showed decreases in Al, Ba, and Ni from March to July 2024, while Cr and Cu increased, suggesting seasonally varying sources. Multivariate analyses further distinguished the contamination patterns, implicating traffic and industrial activities as key contributors. Syntrichia effectively captures HM contamination variability, demonstrating its value as a cost-effective bioindicator. These findings provide critical data that can guide urban planners in developing targeted pollution mitigation strategies, ensuring compliance with the European Green Deal’s Zero Pollution Action Plan.