European Energy Charter Research Articles

Croatia's Energy Position in the European Union with Special Reference to the Croatian-Hungarian Relation

This review paper will present the strategic position of the Republic of Croatia within the European political- energy context. The modern model of economic progress is based on constant increase in energy usage at acceptable prices. Intensive energy usage is a prerequisite for the development of the Croatian economy. Croatia has accepted the European Energy Charter as part of its international obligations in the process of approaching the EU. Croatia and its energy companies will have to adapt their energy policies to European energy trends, especially in the southern part of the continent. The paper presents SWOT analyses of the Croatian energy sector, as well as the development of the Croatian energy infrastructure. Additionally, the Croatian-Hungarian energy problems and strategic conflicts are also highlighted.

The Economics of Protectionism and Panic: The European Natural Gas Disaster of 2021–2022 (so far)

Europe is living through a disaster in its natural gas industry that is harming energy consumers and businesses throughout the continent. Using levers of market power that European regulatory and legislative institutions unwisely gave to it over the prior two decades, with the cooperation of Europe's member state natural gas companies, Russia manipulated exports to Europe in the late 2021 run‐up to its invasion of Ukraine. That manipulation has not only caused panic pricing of Russian supplies, but also for the natural gas coming from other countries to Europe, such as Norway and Algeria, for which no panic was necessary. The spread of panic pricing came about because of purposeful actions in Europe to place most natural gas import pricing on an unstable knife edge—institutionalizing the ability of such panic pricing to permeate all energy import prices and disrupt the European energy markets as electricity market models picked up those panicked internal gas prices. Such disruption has caused heavy state subsidization of energy prices throughout Europe, insolvency, crippling of European exporters—such as Italy's highly regarded ceramics industry, nationalization of some energy businesses, and increasing member state abandonment of the European Energy Charter Treaty.

Using the LSTM Network to Forecast the Demand for Electricity in Poland

The impact of environmental regulations introduced by the European Union is of key importance for electricity generation systems. The Polish fuel structure of electricity production is based on solid fuels. Moreover, the generating base is outdated and must gradually be withdrawn from the power system. In this context, Poland’s energy policy is undergoing a transformation as climate and environmental regulations are becoming increasingly stringent for the energy sector based on solid fuels (hard coal and lignite). However, the transformation process must be adapted to market demands, because the overriding goal is to ensure energy security by maintaining the continuity of energy supplies and an acceptable electricity price. This directly contributes to the development of the entire economy and the standard of living of the society, in accordance with the European Agreement establishing an association between the Republic of Poland and the European Communities and their Member States, signed on 16 December 1991, and the European Energy Charter, signed on 17 December 1991. Ensuring energy security is the most important goal of the energy policy. Therefore, energy companies must forecast the demand. The main goal of this article is to develop a mathematical model of electricity consumption by 2040 by all sectors of the economy: industry, transport, residential, commercial and public services, agriculture, forestry, and fishing. In order to achieve the intended goal, a model was developed by using Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) artificial neural networks, which belong to deep learning techniques and reflect long-term relationships in time series for a small set of statistical data. The results show that the proposed model can significantly improve the accuracy of forecasts (1–3% of mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) for the analyzed sectors of the economy).

Rola Unii Europejskiej w sporze o gazociąg północny. Komentarze w prasie polskiej i niemieckiej

The Baltic Pipeline turned out to be a controversial undertaking from the start of its implementation. The main role in this was played by the media, which bestowed publicity on the problem and, in particular, on the apprehensions provoked by this project.A very important role in this matter was performed by the European Union. It happened thus because practically all the states involved in the controversy were members and, as such, referred to its institutions in attempting to block the project. The EU’s role also had its second layer. Throughout, the parties involved in building the pipeline emphasised the European character of the project, which was to serve all the member states.This article aims at describing the debate in the press which was held in Poland and in Germany and at presenting what was written about the role of the European Union in the dispute around the Baltic Pipeline and in what context.The main issue described in the press turned out to be the European Energy Charter, which Russia was unwilling to ratify. This document was to provide the European energy companies with access to the Russian gas market, which was regarded, both in Poland and in Germany, as one of the measures helping to improve Europe’s energy security. Another issue under consideration turned out to be the unity of the EU member countries as far as energy is concerned; something which was not easy to obtain. The Baltic Pipeline as a project was not interpreted uniformly. The Polish press perceived in the EU institutions an opportunity to torpedo it. The German media presented the pipeline as part of a European system, capable of improving the energy security for the entire continent. An idea of a common energy policy also emerged in the EU; it was not, however, faced with unity among its members. The Polish press referred to a Three Musketeers’ one for all, all for one principle, which was to be implemented by the UE’ states’ supplying raw materials from their reserve stocks in a case of the interruption of supplies to one of the members. The German media, however, were cool toward the idea. The Polish government went a step further in this debate and suggested the formation of an energy NATO, to include the US into their co-operation as well. This suggestion was not appreciated, however, among German politicians and the media. The latter promoted a concept of energy co-operation along the OSCE lines and deemed a NATO-like approach as too confrontational toward Russia.

Risk management issues in the Romanian energy sector

Romania, a country in transition to a market economy, is associated to the European Union and has applied to become a member. It signed the European Energy Charter and is highly committed to harmonising its legislation with EU laws and regulations. In 2001, the Romanian Government approved 'The National Strategy for Development of Romanian Energy Sector' in the medium-term. The main objective of the strategy is the achievement of a competitive energy sector and an energy market harmonised with the EU, by taking into account risk problems. The energy sector in Romania has the benefit of substantial financial support from the international community: grants, loans and technical assistance programmes. An important part of these financial resources has been dedicated to energy efficiency improvement. The majority of the energy programmes were coordinated by the Ministry of Industry and Resources.

Romanian prospects and achievements regarding cooperation with developed countries in the energy sector

Romania, a country in transition to a market economy, is associated to the European Union and has applied to become a member. It signed the European Energy Charter and is highly committed to harmonising its legislation with EU laws and regulations. In 2001, the Romanian Government approved National Strategy for Development of Romanian Energy Sector in the medium term 2001-2004. The main objective of the strategy is the achievement of a competitive energy sector and an energy market harmonised with the EU market. The energy sector in Romania has the benefit of substantial financial support from the international community grants, loans and technical assistance programs. An important part of these financial resources has been dedicated to energy efficiency improvement. The majority of the energy programs were coordinated by the Ministry of Industry and Resources.

A Remarkable Example of Promotion of Arbitration and ADR: The Resolution of Disputes in the Belgian Newly Liberalized Energy Sector

THE LIBERALIZATION of investment in the energy sector at international level1 and the implementation of the European directives on electricity2 and gas3 are likely to give rise to disputes between new actors in matters that, until recently, were totally regulated. Most of these disputes will be ruled by arbitration or ADR. The first part of this article is devoted to the European context of dispute resolution in the electricity and gas markets. The second part provides an insight in the way Belgium implemented4 the Electricity and Gas Directives by creating new authorities for resolving disputes.5 This analysis will conclude that these specific modes of dispute resolution are particularly well adapted to technical energy matters. In the wake of the end of the Cold War, concerns and discussions about the need to realign economic arrangements, in particular the need to reorganize the economic institutions of the former Eastern European countries and their incorporation into Western economic processes, were important preoccupations of political and economic leaders.6 Since 1991, the European Charter on Energy aimed to start a process of economic growth between Western and Eastern European countries by installing measures for the liberalization of investment and exchange in the energy sector. One of the more comprehensive agreements signed between Western and Eastern Europe is the European Energy Charter Treaty signed at Lisbon, Portugal in December 1994 in the spirit of the European Charter on Energy.7 The primary objective of the Treaty is to create space for Western investment in the important, but apparently less exploited, energy resources of the former Eastern European countries.8 The Treaty foresees, in its section VI on the Regulation of Disputes, specific provisions related to disputes that might occur between a private investor and a contracting party or between contracting …

96/05703 The European Energy Charter Treaty. Reality or illusion?

96/05703 The European Energy Charter Treaty. Reality or illusion?

The European Energy Charter Treaty: Reality or illusion?

The European Energy Charter Treaty (ECT) initiated by the European Union and signed 17 December 1994, addresses opportunities for investment in energy resource development by Western companies in Eastern Europe and Russia. The overall objective is the transfer of Western technology to the East, providing hard currency and economic security thereby encouraging development of democratic institutions. Basic provisions of the ECT are examined including environmental implications, national sovereignty and exceptions to national treatment, as well as outstanding issues and prospects for success.

The European Energy Charter Treaty: Tipping the Balance between Energy and the Environment

This article examines the environmental implications of the European Energy Charter Treaty together with the Energy Efficiency and Nuclear Protocols. It considers their provisions in light of existing developments in international environmental law and policy. It concludes that as the primary aim of the Treaty was to stimulate trade in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe it is unsurprising that the Treaty has relied more on hortatory statements and guidance than on implementing concrete environmental protection measures.

European Energy Charter Conference: Final Act, Energy Charter Treaty, Decisions and Energy Charter Protocol on Energy Efficiency and Related Environmental Aspects

European Energy Charter Conference: Final Act, Energy Charter Treaty, Decisions and Energy Charter Protocol on Energy Efficiency and Related Environmental Aspects

United States: Statement on the European Energy Charter Treaty

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Energy Policy in the European Community: Conflicts Between the Objectives of the Unified Single Market, Supply Security and a

Policies for energy and the environment in Europe were previously the preserve of national governments, but the Commission of the European Community has gained a role in both policy areas in the past few years. This was due to the 1987 Single European Act which, in effect, extends the writ of competition law throughout the energy and other previously excluded sectors, the desire to reduce acid rain and greenhouse gas emissions, and reaffirms Europe's renewed concern for long-term oil and gas supply security after the Gulf War and the disintegration of the USSR. The Commission's proposals for the unified internal energy market were driven by concern for competition and free market forces, and seemed to exclude any scope for long-term policy considerations. This paper argues that the implementation of those proposals will be uneven and protracted, and that the Commission's more recent proposals for reducing CO2 emissions and the European Energy Charter appear to mark positive steps towards a long-term strategy for a clean environment, energy efficiency, and oil and gas supply security.

The European Energy Charter

The European Energy Charter

Taken to the cleaners: The fate of the East German energy sector since 1990

This case study of the early stages in the transformation of a ‘planned’ society into a market‐based one under highly favourable conditions describes the nature of the east German energy sector and its fate after 1990 with particular emphasis on the political significance of environmental regulation. Unification turned the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) from a green vanguard in air quality into a moderately dirty country. In 1991 upheavals and uncertainty dominated life in the former German Democratic Republic (GDR). While primary energy demand in the west rose by almost 10 per cent in 1991, it fell by about 30 per cent in the east and demand was not, in early 1991, expected to return to its pre‐'Wende'1 value until 2005 in spite of advancing privatisation and energy price rises to west German values. By late 1991, however, even ESSO predicted a permanent decline (for 2010, total primary energy demand in the west was given as 387 million tonnes hard coal equivalent compared to 100 for the east). Optimists hope that by the year 2000, the conditions will have been created under which a planned society devoted to energy self‐sufficiency will have become fully integrated with the west. Pessimists foresee a period of continuing industrial decline and increasing impoverishment of the population in the east, possibly leading to political destabilisation. The ability of ‘market forces’ is being tested, as is the interaction between the socialist inheritance and regulated capitalism. The process itself is fascinating and the outcomes may well hold lessons for developments elsewhere, including for the future of the European Energy Charter and the role of environmental regulation in facilitating macro‐economic changes.

Towards a northeast Asian energy charter

Recently in northeast Asia, signs of multilateral energy relations are emerging in parallel with the trends towards multilateral economic cooperation. Spurred on by strengthened bilateral energy relations in the area during the last few years, which have created a totally different picture compared with the previous two decades, the anticipated multilateral energy cooperation seems to pave the way for the development of untapped oil and gas reserves in remote or politically-disputed areas, despite some obstacles that should be overcome. If this is the case, the establishment of a pan-northeast Asian agreement on energy, similar in idea and structure to the European Energy Charter, is strongly recommended not only for improved energy relations but for political stability and economic prosperity.

The European Energy Charter

La charte europeenne de l'energie, signee en decembre 1991 par 45 pays, a pour objectifs de maximiser le rendement de production, de conversion, de transport, de distribution et d'utilisation de l'energie, d'ameliorer la securite des installations, de reduire les problemes ecologiques dus a l'utilisation des combustibles et de renforcer la securite d'approvisionnement