European Championship Research Articles

Levels of Stress in Volleyball Referees During Official Matches—The Influence of the Referee Role and Level of Competition

Volleyball referees, as athletes and staff members, are exposed to different stress levels which can be determined by measuring pre- and post-match levels of salivary cortisol (C) and alpha-amylase (AA). This study aimed to determine the dynamics of stress biomarkers in referees during official volleyball matches and the connection to the roles or level of competition. The participants in this study were nine international volleyball referees (three females and six males) with a mean chronological age of 48.23 ± 2.31 years. In this study, saliva samples were collected during 24 official matches during the European championship for senior women’s teams (Eurovolley 2021). The AA activity and C concentrations were determined from saliva samples. When the referees’ roles were assessed in line with their duties, the first referees’ salivary C levels showed a significant increase between the pre- and post-match measurements (p = 0.01), while in the second referees remained low. The reserve and challenge referees demonstrated a significant drop in their C concentrations (p = 0.00 and p = 0.02, respectively). Additionally, when assessing AA which accounts for the responsibilities of referees and the intensity of competition, the first (p = 0.06 and p = 0.07) and second referees (p = 0.01 and p = 0.00) showed an increase between the pre- and post-match measurements, respectively. At the same time, the AA activity did not show any significant change concerning the reserve and challenge referees. Our results indicate that referees’ roles and the level of competition may cause higher responses in “active referee roles”—mainly the first and second referees—while reserve and challenge referees showed no increase or even a decrease in the measured biomarkers. The observed changes in the stress markers can be explained by psychological or emotional effects and are dependent on the level of competition and the role referees are fulfilling.

Determining Validity and Reliability of an In-Field Performance Analysis System for Swimming.

To permit the collection of quantitative data on start, turn and clean swimming performances in any swimming pool, the aims of the present study were to (1) validate a mobile in-field performance analysis system (PAS) against the Kistler starting block equipped with force plates and synchronized to a 2D camera system (KiSwim, Kistler, Winterthur, Switzerland), (2) assess the PAS's interrater reliability and (3) provide percentiles as reference values for elite junior and adult swimmers. Members of the Swiss junior and adult national swimming teams including medalists at Olympic Games, World and European Championships volunteered for the present study (n = 47; age: 17 ± 4 [range: 13-29] years; World Aquatics Points: 747 ± 100 [range: 527-994]). All start and turn trials were video-recorded and analyzed using two methods: PAS and KiSwim. The PAS involves one fixed view camera recording overwater start footage and a sport action camera that is moved underwater along the side of the pool perpendicular to the swimming lane on a 1.55 m long monostand. From a total of 25 parameters determined with the PAS, 16 are also measurable with the KiSwim, of which 7 parameters showed satisfactory validity (r = 0.95-1.00, p < 0.001, %-difference < 1%). Interrater reliability was determined for all 25 parameters of the PAS and reliability was accepted for 21 of those start, turn and swimming parameters (ICC = 0.78-1.00). The percentiles for all valid and reliable parameters provide reference values for assessment of start, turn and swimming performance for junior and adult national team swimmers. The in-field PAS provides a mobile method to assess start, turn and clean swimming performance with high validity and reliability. The analysis template and manual included in the present article aid the practical application of the PAS in research and development projects as well as academic works.

Emissions from air travel and major football tournaments

ABSTRACT Research Question This paper explores the environmental impact of air travel during two international football tournaments – the Mens FIFA World Cup and UEFA European Championships – by estimating CO2 emissions from the movements of competing teams. Specifically, we consider how travel associated with major international football tournaments has evolved over time. Research Methods We access data for 895 international football matches (June 1990–July 2024). Our data focuses on the travel associated with players and management travelling to, and within, host countries and includes the movement of more than 16,000 people. Estimates of CO2 emissions per passenger (per kilometre) are used to examine the environmental impact of travelling to host countries, and competing, during the tournament. Results and Findings Our findings are the first attempt to demonstrate the CO2 emissions from team travel to and within major football tournaments. Despite improvements in aeroplane fuel efficiency, the carbon footprint from team travel has generally not been reduced. The decision to expand these tournaments, locate matches across large geographic areas, and use co-host countries has exacerbated this issue. Implications Our findings can support sustainability initiatives and could be adopted by both federations to curb CO2 emissions which appear to undermine genuine attempts to become more environmentally friendly.

Mass gathering events and COVID-19; lessons learnt from the 2020 European football championship.

Evidence about the impact of mass gatherings during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on the number of disease cases and on the health-care systems of host countries is limited. Additionally, there have been few publications on the lessons identified from the adaptation of mass gatherings held during the pandemic, including the implementation of comprehensive public health and social measures aimed at reducing viral transmission. This article describes preparations made for the 2020 Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) European Football Championship (UEFA Euro 2020) by the World Health Organization's (WHO) Regional Office for Europe, UEFA and other stakeholders after the championship had been rescheduled because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Technical guidance on preparations for the football tournament and risk assessment tools were provided by WHO. A task force established by the WHO Regional Office for Europe conducted traditional and event-based disease surveillance before and during UEFA Euro 2020, monitored public health and social measures in the 11 host countries, and developed a risk communication and community engagement strategy that involved multimedia campaigns targeting news and social media, fans, athletes, event organizers and other stakeholders. The lessons and good practices identified during UEFA Euro 2020 are described to help guide preparations for future mass gatherings in health emergencies. Sharing data and recommendations on best practice from previous mass gatherings with the organizers and countries involved in planning for a major event is particularly important.

The Game Theory of Football Penalty Kicks

Abstract. Soccer is the world's number one sport, known for its fierce rivalries and full of surprises. Especially in important international competitions, such as the World Cup and the European Championships, matches are often about national honor and the expectations of millions of fans. Penalty kicks are a common punishment in soccer, where the goalkeeper and the shooter are pitted against each other in a one-on-one confrontation. Penalty kicks, because of their simplicity of confrontation, have a breath-taking tension and excitement, and most of the victory depends on the decision-making confrontation between the shooter and the goalkeeper. Game theory is an important tool for studying how participants make decisions to maximize their own gains in situations of conflict and competition. In order to study how the goalkeeper saves most effectively, this paper analyzes the penalty shot from the perspective of game theory, and obtains the optimal solution for the goalkeeper's save direction in a simplified situation by calculating the Nash equilibrium under mixed strategies.

Peaking for the Olympic Games. An Integrated Approach Developed With the French National Swimming Team for Paris 2024.

Bosquet, L, Bretonneau, Q, Pla, R, Vachon, A, and Morales-Artacho, A. Peaking for the Olympic games: an integrated approach developed with the French national swimming team for Paris 2024. J Strength Cond Res 38(11): 1981-1986, 2024-In energy-dominant disciplines, such as swimming, performance depends largely on the difference between the levels of fatigue and physical fitness: the greater this difference, the higher the probability of reaching a peak performance. The main challenge before major events such as the Olympic games is therefore in identifying the most efficient strategies to reduce the fatigue accumulated during previous mesocycles, while maintaining, or even improving the level of physical fitness. The most widespread strategy relies in the manipulation of training load parameters. This is the taper period, which has been shown to improve performance by ≈2% in elite athletes. However, tapering may not be sufficient for the most tired athletes. In this case, the strategy commonly used consists in combining the manipulation of training load with the implementation of recovery methods. Regardless of the strategy, we perceive that the challenge for athletes, coaches, and sport scientists is to estimate the level of cumulative fatigue as precisely as possible to individualize the recommendations. This relies not only on the identification of valid markers but also on the ability to interpret their variations over time. The objective of this article is to present the method initially developed in a European champion professional rugby team and now implemented with the French swimming team as part of its preparation for the Paris 2024 Olympic and Paralympic Games. More specifically, this article provides some details about the conception of the monitoring dashboard, and the method used to interpret changes over time to categorize the level of fatigue.

The Integral Assessment of Playing Tactics in National Football Teams

Objectives. The objective of the study was to determine the features of competitive activities among national football teams based on the integral assessment of playing tactics. Materials and methods. The study was conducted during the 2024 European Football Championship. The competitive activities of national football teams from European countries (Germany, Spain, England, Switzerland, France, Portugal, Netherlands, Turkey) were analyzed, focusing on the playing tactics in 50 halves. In order to carry out the study, the following methods were used: theoretical analysis of literature sources; pedagogical observation of competitive activities; analysis of video materials of competitive activities; methods of mathematical statistics. The statistical analysis of the research results was conducted using descriptive mathematical statistics. The sample was characterized by determining the arithmetic mean, standard deviation (S), and coefficient of variation (V). The significance of observed differences in the indicators was assessed using the parametric Student’s t-test for independent samples. Prior to this, the data’s conformity to a normal distribution was verified using the Shapiro-Wilk W-test. Results. A methodology for the integral assessment of the tactics undertaken by national football teams was developed. The integral assessment of team tactics consisted of 10 specific coefficients that reflect the main components of football players’ competitive activities in the phases of ball possession and recovery. The competitive activities in 50 halves of the 2024 European Football Championship were analyzed. The average value of the integral assessment of the tactics in national football teams was determined to be 5.62 ± 0.43 points. The findings revealed significant tactical variations between the teams, with Spain’s use of high pressing and creative play contributing to their championship victory. A ten-point scale for evaluating the tactics of national football teams was developed, on the basis of which the level of competitive activities is interpreted. Conclusions. The developed methodology for monitoring and analyzing the tactics of football teams allows for targeted management influences on the competitive activities of football players at the operational, current, and stage levels.

Signal detection and assessment supporting syndromic surveillance during the UEFA EURO 2024

Abstract Background Mass gatherings like the UEFA European Football Championship in Germany pose a challenge for public health, elevating the risk of infectious disease outbreaks. The Robert Koch Institute (RKI) is performing intensified surveillance during this event, including data from emergency departments (ED). So far, no standardised process for signal detection, their assessment and communication exists for ED surveillance. Methods We reviewed the literature to identify an appropriate signal detection method for ED surveillance. We tested different aggregation levels of the ED data, to ensure sufficient quality with sparse categories. After consulting with international experts, we defined a standardized process for signal assessment. We developed an interactive dashboard to investigate anomalies by further analysing the ED data. Results We used the Farrington Flexible algorithm, but expanded its functionality to perform daily instead of weekly monitoring. Aggregating to federal state level or in five age categories provided enough daily data for the algorithm. During the assessment, identified signals will be automatically scored based on pre-defined criteria (e.g. excess number of cases, reoccurrence in previous days). Signals with a high score will be forwarded to an epidemiological assessment, where they are manually evaluated based on standardised questions (e.g. expected seasonality, disease severity). Surveillance experts at RKI discuss them further and decide the course of communication and possible further measures. We developed an interactive dashboard in which signal detection and assessment is visualized. Conclusions Syndromic surveillance using ED data is used as an information source for early warning during a mass sporting event in Germany. Signal detection enables the identification of potential outbreaks, while the standardized assessment process ensures an efficient way to prioritize and steer communication efforts across public health services. Key messages • Syndromic surveillance using signal detection has previously proven valuable to detect potential outbreaks of infectious diseases during mass gatherings. • A standardised signal assessment process including an automatic and manual component ensures a sustainable and efficient way to prioritize possible incidents and steer public health communication.

Unravelling the impact of the covid-19 pandemic on judo: a comparative analysis of the 2018-ec and 2020-ec championships

An athlete’s performance, though relying on the ability of the competitor, is also significantly influenced by the training time. If a sportsperson is deprived of exercising, severe consequences may arise regarding his practice as the result of such behavior. This is what occurred in the awakening of the COVID-19 pandemic where several athletes were deprived of training according to the required conditions for a high-level sport. Thus, this essay aimed to examine the various aspects of this impact. For this purpose, the effect changes in training routines on the athlete's performance/abandonment and on the combat dynamics were analyzed. Based on a quantitative analysis methodology, with descriptive and inferential analytical processes, it was considered the data obtained through the direct observation of video recordings of the combats held at the 2018 and 2020 European Championships. The results did not reveal a significant resignation of athletes from high competition but there are indications of a decrease in the number of attacks and more combat, increasing the duration of pauses and approaching the grips time (using P&lt;0.05 as significance level). Keywords: judo; COVID-19; performance analysis; combat sport; Temporal Structure of Judo Combat.

Predominant technical actions used in the European judo championship

Judo is an Olympic combat sport that is divided into male and female weight categories. Each weight category implies significant differences in technical and strategic dimensions, as well as physiological, performance, and body composition among competitors. This study aimed to determine the technical actions predominance used by judokas in the European Judo Championship 2021. We observed 398 judo combats, in the various weight categories male and female, disputed in the European Judo Championship 2021. It was used an observation system in accordance with the classification of judo techniques proposed by Kodokan. An observation system was used according to the Kodokan classification of judo techniques. In Nage-Waza combat, there was a predominance leg technique (Ashi-Waza), arm technique (Te-Waza), hip technique (Koshi-Waza), side sacrifice techniques (Yoko-Sutemi-Waza) and frontal sacrifice techniques (Ma-Sutemi-Waza). When we focused our observation on the effectiveness of applied techniques, we observed more techniques scored with Ippon than Wazari. We can also observe that Shido was the significantly more recurrent punishment during male combats. Keywords: Judo, Kodokan, European Championship, Combat performance, Competitive performance analysis.

Less is more? An analysis of end time limits in individual divisions at international Boccia events

ABSTRACT The strategic throwing of balls in Boccia matches is influenced by the end duration, prompting athletes to consider their moves carefully. Implementing different end’s time limits could enhance game dynamics, motivating athletes to elevate their performance and engage the audience further. Therefore, this study aims to assess the suitability of the pre-established time limit for each end in Boccia across individual divisions (BC1, BC2, BC3, and BC4) by analysing their remaining unused time. A total of 784 matches from international competitions, including the Americas’ Championship, Asian and Oceania Championship, European Championship, and World Championship, were examined. Findings suggest the potential for a one-minute reduction in the currently established time for BC1 and BC2 divisions. A decreased time limit could enhance the appeal of Boccia for spectators, media, and sponsors.

Educating and promoting athletes’ health protection through infographics on injury and illness prevention during an international competition: a prospective study during the 2024 European Athletics Championships

ObjectiveTo investigate the feasibility, perceived relevance and usefulness of providing injury and illness prevention information through infographics to athletes and medical teams before and during an international athletics championship, and...

A roundtable discussion on the politics of EURO 2024: a collective commentary

ABSTRACT Every European Football Championship raises a host of important political questions. Euro 2024 in Germany was no exception in this regard, as this commentary demonstrates. This roundtable discussion – in form of mini essays – reconsiders this politicized event. Indeed, this collectively written commentary involves short, but sharp insights from five scholars aiming to provide a responsive account of politically significant moments or trends at before, during and in the immediate aftermath of Euro 2024. By exploring important questions relating to, inter alia, nationalism, security and safety, sustainability, and children’s rights – in Euro 2024’s context – it is hoped that this commentary paper will offer something to future discussions concerning Euro 2024, European football and sport mega-events more widely, and, finally, socio-political processes in contemporary Europe.

Fatigue fracture of the second rib in a professional athlete

A fatigue fracture, also known as stress fracture or overuse fracture, is caused by the summation of micro-injuries resulting from a chronic state of bone overload. It affects 1.4 %- 4.4 % of professional athletes. The most common site of fatigue fractures are the lower limbs. This is related to the heavy load caused by body weight and performing dynamic activities like jumping, running. Typical fractures are fractures of the fifth metatarsal bone, fibula and tibia, and less common fractures of the femur. Fractures involving the bones of the upper limbs and thorax are less commonly reported in the literature. It affect athletes in strength sports and athletes who perform dynamic and repetitive movements with their upper limbs, most often boxers, weightlifters, wrestlers, judokas, swimmers, golfers, rowers. Fractures in the thorax most often involve the first rib. Fractures of ribs II through XII are extremely rarely described. We present an unusual case of a second rib fracture in a professional athlete. A 26-year-old athlete training in racewalking reported increasing pain in the left scapula area 7 days before competing in the European Championships. Immediately after the competition, the pain changed location to the anterior thorax area, making movement of the upper limb and breathing much more difficult. A chest tomography was performed and it revealed a fatigue fracture of the second rib on the left side. The case report presents an atypical fracture in a female racewalking athlete and presents the uncharacteristic symptoms accompanying this fracture. Incorrect initial diagnosis and application of physiotherapy procedures without performing basic diagnostic tests, delay the diagnosis and initiation of proper treatment, and thus the athlete's recovery.

The effect of fatigue on strength-power tests for distinguishing elite-level male kickboxers

BACKGROUND: Based on recent research, slight performance differences, particularly dependent on the state of recovery, might be crucial for tournament success among elite-caliber kickboxers. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to; a) determine which strength-power tests could discriminate better between elite and top-elite kickboxers and, b) to evaluate changes in testing results between fatigued and well-rested athletes. METHODS: Twenty-two international kickboxers (including World and European Champions) volunteered to participate in this study. Nine kickboxers were assigned to the top-elite group and 13 to the elite group based on their highest tournament achievements. Subjects performed the Wingate test (Win) for anaerobic power; countermovement jump (CMJ) and squat jump (SJ) for neuromuscular power; push-ups and pull-ups for strength endurance; squats (SQ) and bench press (BP) for maximal dynamic strength; handgrip, leg, and back strength for isometric strength after full rest, following the fatigue and advanced fatigue protocols. RESULTS: Discriminant function analysis correctly classified the groups at 60.5%, 75.3%, and 86.3% in the resting, fatigue, and advanced fatigue protocols, respectively. Furthermore, all strength-power performances have significantly decreased and lactatepeak increased (p&lt; 0.05) after the fatigue and advanced fatigue protocols in both groups. Significant interaction were also observed in the Winpeak (p&lt; 0.001, ηp2= 0.559), Winmean (p= 0.009, ηp2= 0.246), CMJ (p= 0.010, ηp2= 0.273), push-ups (p&lt; 0.001, ηp2= 0.389), SQabsolute (p= 0.001, ηp2= 0.337), BPabsolute (p= 0.014, ηp2= 0.235) and, Lactatepeak (p= 0.026, ηp2= 0.220). CONCLUSION: Resistance to fatigue may be the key component for distinguishing elite-level athletes. Thus, strength-power tests should be performed following a certain level of fatigue for the elite athletes due to distinguish them more effectively.

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN OPTIMIZING PHYSICAL TRAINING: IMPACT ON COMPETITIVE PERFORMANCES IN DANCE SPORT

These instructions are formulated for presenting the template used for editing the articles for the scientific journal Bulletin of Transilvania University of Braşov. The material presents the camera ready form of the articles. The abstract should synthetically outline all the pertinent results, in a short but intelligible form. The abstract should begin through clearly stating the purpose of the paper and should end by formulating the most important conclusions. There will be used short, direct and complete sentences, written in a single paragraph, without “tab”-s. The abstract will have 7...10 lin The arbitration criteria in sport dance, established by the WDSF and FRDS regulations, form the basis for the activities that referees undertake to assess the technical, artistic, and sports performance quality of dance couples. The research aims to analyze the results of 16 Romanian dancers (aged 15-18) in official competitions, specifically the finalist couples of the National Section Championship, Youth Latin – 2022. This includes their participation and results at DanceMasters, Bucharest 2022 – WDSF Open Youth Latin, WDSF World Championship – 2022, WDSF European Championship – 2022 (for the two couples representing Romania), and the National Section Championship, Youth Latin – 2023, considering their placement in the competition, performance in the rumba dance, and the scores awarded by each judge in the competition jury. Using IBM SPSS Statistics 20, we compared the results recorded from one competition to another throughout a competitive year, specifically between National Section Championships. The analysis highlights the importance of close collaboration between physical preparation and athletes’ performance. The obtained results demonstrate the validity of the working hypothesis that the dynamics of performances in national and international competitions can effectively influence the physical training efficiency of sports dancers.

Contributions Regarding the Improvement of Specific Physical Training in 14 – 16 Year-Old Handball Players

By carefully watching the handball games both in the domestic championship and the games from the World and European Championships, we come to the conclusion that great performances are only achieved by teams that have a very good physical training, so implicitly a general and specific motor ability excellently doubled by a preparation on training factors: technical, theoretical, tactical and psychological. The choice of plyometric exercises must imitate handball skills, to maximize the strengthening of the muscles that trigger the movement and, in certain cases, to generate "motor memory", consolidating the technical skills involved.

Anthropometric and Somatotype Profile of Elite Finn Class Sailors.

Determining the reference base of anthropometric parameters on a sample of elite athletes is one of the foundations of further research and forming a clearer picture of each sport and sports discipline. In this study, the aim was to describe the anthropometric and somatotype profiles of elite Finn class sailors and to determine the differences in the measured parameters between sailors at different levels of general competitive success. The subject sample included 57 Finn class sailors who competed at the open Finn European Championship. A set of 25 anthropometric variables were applied. The sailors were divided into three groups according to their level of general competitive success using World Sailing Rankings. Finn sailors had higher average values in almost all morphological characteristics when compared to the sailors in other Olympic classes. Considering the average values of somatotype categories, we determined that Finn sailors fit the endomorphic mesomorph somatotype category (3.94 ± 1.19 - 5.50 ± 1.19 - 1.63 ± 0.74). Significant differences were observed between more-successful, medium, and less-successful sailors in the variables of age, body mass, muscle mass, arm muscle mass, and endomorphy rating. These results indicate the possibility of selection processes and/or adaptation to sailing occurring in the Finn class. The anthropometric characteristics of Finn sailors compared to sailors in Olympic classes further "support" the Finn class being called the "heavy dinghy" male class. This study on anthropometric parameters, determined via a sample of top Finn sailors, may be of great help to coaches and young sailors when deciding on the selection of an adult sailing class.

On head-to-head results as tie-breaker and consequent opportunities for collusion

Abstract Accepted by: Phil Scarf The outcome of some football matches has benefited both teams at the expense of a third team because head-to-head results were used for breaking ties. Inspired by these examples, our mathematical analysis identifies all possible collusion opportunities caused by this particular ranking rule in a single round-robin tournament with four teams. According to a simulation model based on the 2024 UEFA European Football Championship, merely the tie-breaking rule increases the probability of reaching a situation vulnerable to collusion by between 11.5 and 14.8 percentage points. This risk can scarcely be mitigated by a static match schedule. Therefore, tournament organizers are strongly encouraged to choose goal difference as the primary tie-breaking rule, similar to the official policy of FIFA.

The effects of aerobic gymnastics training on performance-related variables in an elite athlete: a 2-year follow-up study.

This study investigates individual performance adaptations on 2years of training between European Aerobics Championships. An elite, 22-year-old aerobic gymnast performed postural coordination test, Y-Balance test, squat and countermovement jumps, 60s test of repeated jumps, an isokinetic leg muscle strength test, and the Wingate test. Postural stability and flexibility improved in terms of increased distance achieved in the Y-Balance test in the anterior (by 6.3%), posteromedial (by 2%), and posterolateral (by 4.8%) directions. Lower limb muscular endurance also increased, which can be corroborated by a reduced fatigue index in the 60s test of repeated jumps (from 42% to 27% after the 1st and to 22% after the 2nd year of training). In addition, mean power increased during dominant (by 23.2% at 60°/s and by 18.5% at 180°/s) and non-dominant leg extension (by 4.9% at 180°/s and by 15.5% at 300°/s), plus dominant leg flexion (by 2.0% at 60°/s and by 6.9% at 300°/s). Similarly, peak torque/body weight ratio increased during dominant (by 24.9% at 60°/s, by 11.5% at 180°/s, and by 2.1% at 300°/s) and non-dominant leg extension (by 0.5% at 60°/s and by 6.4% at 300°/s), plus dominant leg flexion (by 1.7% at 60°/s and by 5.4% at 300°/s). However, 2years of training failed to show any significant improvements in the explosive power of lower limbs and anaerobic performance. These findings indicate that general aerobic gymnastics training without any specific inputs leads to performance adaptation, namely, in abilities closely related to competition routine (dynamic balance and strength endurance of lower limbs).