European Brown Hare Lepus Europaeus Research Articles

Dietary habits of the European brown hare: summary of knowledge and management relapses

Assessing the nutritional needs and food preferences of animal species is important to design appropriate habitat improvement actions, in particular in agricultural environments. The European brown hare Lepus europaeus is a game species of European conservation interest, typical of open areas, and with declining populations in Eurasia. In this work, the authors summarised the current knowledge on European brown hare feeding habits and also discussed potential management relapses of this species. The European brown hare has developed a particular digestive process called caecotrophy, which consists of a double passage of food through the alimentary canal. Hares compensate for this disadvantage by selecting foods with a high nutritional value, poor in fibre and rich in fats and proteins. The European brown hare thrives in farmland habitat as crops have a high nutritional value, even if monoculture and reduction of crop variety are considered the main causes of the decline of this species. Even in the agricultural environment, spontaneous weeds are an important part of the European brown hare diet, covering the nutritional needs when cultivated plants have a low nutritional value or have been harvested. The restoration of crop rotation and polycultures (cereals and cover crops), and the establishment of agri-environmental measures such as wildflower strips and patches, represent effective strategies to favour the European brown hare and the biodiversity of farmland habitats.

Factors affecting spatiotemporal behaviour in the European brown hareLepus europaeus: a meta‐analysis

AbstractThe European brown hareLepus europaeusis the most widely distributed hare species of the world, being naturally present throughout Eurasia and introduced as a game species in most continents. Despite the importance of this lagomorph for both management and conservation, a quantitative summary of its spatiotemporal behaviour is still lacking.Taking advantage of 51 selected studies conducted throughout the native range of the hare and spanning the last 40 years, we used meta‐analytic approaches in order to: 1) investigate home range size in relation to ecological factors; 2) test preference across major habitat types; and 3) provide a quantitative synthesis of hare activity patterns.Temporally adjusted home range size of hare populations decreased with increasing cropland cover (cereal and non‐cereal crops), suggesting that home range size gets smaller with increasing food availability, and predicting that hare populations living in absence of crops would double their mean home range size compared to those inhabiting areas covered entirely by cropland. Hare populations where more males were sampled showed larger home ranges, in line with the polygynous mating system of this species.Hares preferred cropland and grassland over other habitats for foraging, thus selecting the two habitats characterised by the majority of trophic resources for this species. Yet, habitat types were used proportionally to their availability overall, except for the general avoidance of human settlements. Hares were mainly nocturnal, with the lowest activity during daytime, when activity was about one third of that at night, and showed moonlight avoidance, probably to limit encounters with nocturnal predators.Our work emphasises the importance of open habitats and especially cropland for this lagomorph, but also suggests some plasticity in the use of space and time by hares. Such plasticity may help this mammal to cope with future environmental changes, providing that landscape heterogeneity is maintained.

Spatiotemporal Overlap between the European Brown Hare and Its Potential Predators and Competitors.

Simple SummaryPredator-prey relationships and competition shape interspecific coexistence in wildlife communities. So far, most published studies have focused on large carnivores and their prey, whereas little is known about medium and small-sized mammal communities. The European brown hare Lepus europaeus is a widespread species in Europe and is part of the diet of many birds of prey and mammalian carnivores of all sizes. Furthermore, competition with other herbivorous mammals at feeding sites has also been suggested. In an area in Central Italy, we have assessed spatiotemporal overlap among brown hare and its potential predators (red fox Vulpes vulpes, pine marten Martes martes, domestic cat Felis catus, and domestic dog Canis familiaris) and a competitor (roe deer Capreolus capreolus). We showed that, outside a fenced area excluding predators and competitors, brown hares become more nocturnal and more active on dark nights to limit encounters with predators, and that they adopt spatial partitioning to avoid competitors, as expected by ecological theory.Analysis of spatiotemporal partitioning is pivotal to shed light on interspecific coexistence. Most research effort has involved large-sized carnivores and their prey, whereas little attention has been devoted to lagomorphs. We assessed spatiotemporal overlap among the European brown hare Lepus europaeus and its potential competitors and predators through camera-trapping in an area in Central Italy. We estimated the interspecific patterns of the spatiotemporal activity rhythms of brown hares, its potential predators (the red fox Vulpes vulpes, the pine marten Martes martes, the domestic cat Felis catus, and the domestic dog Canis familiaris), and a competitor, the roe deer Capreolus capreolus. Brown hare activity was studied in natural conditions as well as in a fenced area that excluded terrestrial predators and competitors. Free-ranging hares developed a more nocturnal behavior to avoid diurnal predators (i.e., domestic carnivores and martens). Although high temporal overlap was observed between free-ranging brown hares and both red foxes (82%) and roe deer (81%), hares avoided fox by being more active on darkest nights, as well as avoided roe deer through spatial partitioning. We suggest that hares may adapt their spatiotemporal behavior to avoid potential predators and competitors.

Bad hare day: very low survival rate in brown hare leverets

Increased postnatal leveret mortality has been identified as the proximate factor explaining the decline of European brown hare Lepus europaeus populations in Europe. However, direct measurements of survival rates are non-existent as the leveret's cryptic behaviour makes them very difficult to study. Previously, leveret survival rates calculated using hunting bag statistics or capture–mark–recapture methods have been estimated to lie between 5% and 56% for the period between the start (January) and the end (October) of the breeding season. Such indirect approaches are known to yield inaccurate results compared to direct survival measurements. Hence, we applied novel detection methods and radio-tagged 63 wild-born leverets (aged between 1 and 22 days at capture) in two different populations in the Swiss lowlands. We located the tagged individuals daily to monitor individual fates and to directly calculate survival probabilities. We found that leveret survival is negatively influenced by precipitation. However, when leverets use edge habitats, survival is positively influenced. Daily survival rate and survival probability for the first month of life were found to be 0.94 and 0.18 respectively. Such low survival is alarming and to prevent further declines in populations of brown hares, it will be essential to mitigate against these excessive losses. Therefore, we suggest measures aimed at increasing the area of suitable habitat for leverets, where they can grow up safely (e.g. shelter from predators and bad weather).

Minimising orphaning in the brown hare Lepus europaeus in England and Wales: should a close season be introduced?

The European brown hare Lepus europaeus is an r‐selected species showing relatively high fecundity, and changes in the hare population can be influenced by the timing of hunting and reproductive activity. Between February and August in Europe, the majority of female hares are either pregnant or suckling young, or both, and if a female is killed during the suckling period, the young hares (leverets) are orphaned and are likely to die of starvation. In England and Wales, in contrast with other European countries, there is no close season when hunting hares is prohibited, and the peak time of hunting in February coincides with the start of reproductive activity. We explore the impact of hunting practices on the risk of death by starvation of dependent young. By modelling scenarios of hunting at the highest documented rate at times of the year based on practices adopted in England and Wales, and by comparing this with the close season practice in Scotland, we quantify seasonally variable risks of orphaning and death by starvation of leverets. Hunting in February leads to a profoundly damaging combination of population shrinkage (λ = 0.534) and levels of orphaning of leverets corresponding to 7.6% of the year start population and thus providing poor welfare and poor population recovery outcomes for the hare. These illustrative figures compare very unfavourably with the modelled Scottish population which has a growth rate of λ = 1.404 and levels of orphaning of leverets corresponding to 0.3% of the year start population. We anticipate that these findings will stimulate consideration of the impact of hunting practices, and that increased understanding of the effects of the timing of hunting may aid policy development aimed at protecting dependent young hares.

Dietary partitioning between European roe deer and European brown hare

The European roe deer Capreolus capreolus and the European brown hare Lepus europaeus are two important and widespread herbivores in Europe. In recent decades, roe deer have generally increased throughout Europe, while brown hares have decreased, because of habitat changes caused by agricultural intensification. It is unclear whether resource exploitation by roe deer may favour this decline. The analysis of interspecific dietary patterns could help to assess whether a potential for competition occurs between these herbivores. Through micro-histological analyses of feces, we have assessed food habits, diet selection, and dietary overlap between roe deer and brown hares in a Mediterranean mixed wood-agricultural area, in 2007–2008. We detected significant differences between the composition of diets of these two herbivores. Deciduous and evergreen wood plants were the staple of roe deer (each of them built up >30 % of total diet), while cereals, spontaneous herbs, and graminoids were the staple of hares (each of them built up 23–33 % of diet). These items were selected by roe deer and hares, with seasonal differences in selection indices, likely depending on variation of availability of different food categories. The dietary breadth of roe deer was ca. 2.5 times greater than that of hares; the interspecific dietary overlap was low but increased in winter, and the dietary niche of hares was included in that of roe deer. Our results suggest that dietary and habitat partitioning occurred between roe deer and hares, with wood and open field being their main foraging habitat, respectively. Ecological overlap occurred in winter, when roe deer aggregate in open fields and increase their use of wheat, the main food item of hares. Most likely, abundance of cultivated cereals and spontaneous herbs for hares and presence of wood, providing roe deer with high-quality browse, reduce the potential for interspecific competition and are the key for the coexistence between these herbivores, in Mediterranean agricultural areas.

Karyological comparisons of the European hare (Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778) from the Asian part of Turkey, with morphological contributions

We focused on a comparison of karyological data for the European brown hare Lepus europaeus, from the Asian part of Turkey. In Turkish L. europaeus, the diploid number (2n), the fundamental number of chromosomal arms (FN) and the number of autosomal arms (FNa) were determined to be 2n=48, 84 and 80, respectively. The autosomes are composed of three pairs of metacentric chromosomes, four pairs of submetacentric chromosomes, ten pairs of subtelocentric chromosomes and six pairs of acrocentric chromosomes. The X chromosome was a medium-large submetacentric and the Y chromosome was a very small acrocentric. This is the third report for L. europaeus from Turkey and confirmed the previous results with regard to 2n. However, when comparing our findings with those of other authors, there were karyotypic differences among the chromosomes. These differences were related to the number of chromosome arms. Additionally, we present the skull measurements of seven samples for the Turkish brown hare collected from three localities, and these measurements conformed to those of previous studies.

The influence of habitat structure on the European brown hare Lepus europaeus food habits in mountainous areas of northern Greece

The European brown hare ( Lepus europaeus , Pallas 1778) is a widely distributed mammal inhabiting most of Europe. It is one of the most important game animals across its distribution (Chapman and Flux 1990 ). However, a signifi cant population decline has been observed in most European countries over recent decades, usually due to anthropogenic factors (Smith et al. 2005 ). This decline is refl ected in annual harvests of the European hare. In particular, habitat degradation, the reduction of wild plants ’ richness and agricultural intensifi cation have caused numerous problems for the European hare ’ s abundance and population (Smith et al. 2005 , Olesen and Asferg 2006 ). Greece maintains one of the lowest population densities in the Mediterranean region, probably due to low habitat quality (Bakaloudis et al. 2009 ). Information about a game species ’ food habits is needed for a better understanding of its ecology, which will help biologists determine effi cient ways for its sustainable management. Stomach content analysis is a frequently used method to describe the food preferences of common terrestrial vertebrates and for mammalian game species (Bakaloudis and Vlachos 2009 ). Microhistological analysis of food ingested is a method widely used to describe herbivore diet composition (Homolka 1983, 1987 , Katona et al. 2004 , Reichlin et al. 2006 , Pauperio and Alves 2008 ). Several studies have been conducted concerning the diet of hares ( Lepus sp.) in central and northern European countries, but there is limited information concerning their feeding

Hunt sightings as a tool for monitoring the distribution and abundance of brown hare Lepus europaeus in UK agricultural landscapes

We examined the potential of hare sightings data, collected during hunts by the Association of Masters of Harriers and Beagles, as a possible monitoring tool for the European brown hare Lepus europaeus. The relationship between land use and both temporal trends, and spatial patterns, in brown hare sightings across England and Wales was examined using data collected between the 1985/86 and 2004/05 hunting seasons. Hare sightings increased significantly during this period, with an average increase of 2.81 hare sightings per hunting day across all hunts since 1985. Sightings were more frequent in eastern England, where arable land is abundant, than in the rest of England and Wales which is predominantly pastoral. There was no correlation between temporal trends in hare sightings and land use change. Patterns observed using the hunt sighting data are similar to those reported by other concurrent studies that used different methods. We conclude that hunt sightings could contribute useful data to a national monitoring scheme.

A Large-scale Survey of Brown Hare Lepus Europaeus and Iberian Hare L. Granatensis Populations at the Limit of Their Ranges

The historical ranges of the European brown hare Lepus europaeus and the Iberian hare L. granatensis meet in Aragon in northeastern Spain. We studied the relative abundances and the population trends of the two species in 60 localities (13 for the brown hare, 38 for the Iberian hare, and nine from the transition zone where both species are present) by spotlighting in winter during 1992-2002. We carried out a total of 1,407 counts covering 41,511 km. Both the Iberian (132.2 6 33.2 hares/100 km; range: 52-192) and the brown hare (106.7 6 26.8; range: 53-136) were more abundant in their respective zones than both species combined in the transition zone (90.9 6 50.5, range: 37-157). The highest Iberian hare abundances were recorded in the northern Iberian Mountains, an area with well-preserved cereal-dominated ecosystems and a less extreme cli- mate than in other parts of the study area. The Iberian hare had signifi- cant inter-annual differences both locally and generally, which was main- ly due to a peak in 1998, and this species showed a general positive trend during the study period, suggesting that Iberian hare numbers are in- creasing. Contrary to the marked declines reported from other European regions, the brown hare abundance indices obtained in the Spanish Pyr- enees during our study period remained stable.

Studies on the European hare. 56. Seasonal variation of testicular activity in European brown hare Lepus europaeus

Testicular activity in brown hare Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778 was studied during the annual cycle.