Antarctic Krill Research Articles

Encapsulation of Antarctic krill peptide by polysaccharide-based nanoparticles: Preparation, characterization, evaluation of stability and hypoglycemic activity

The aim of this study was to construct a chitosan quaternary ammonium salt (HTCC)/sodium alginate (SA) nanoparticle delivery system for the encapsulation of Antarctic krill peptide (AKP), with the goal of enhancing its stability and post-digestive hypoglycemic activity. Additionally, the effect of the content and encapsulation sequence of HTCC/SA on the structure and properties of AKP-loaded nanoparticles (AKP-loaded NPs) was investigated. As the content of the outermost wall material (HTCC) increased, the particle size of nanoparticles initially increased and then decreased. Concurrently, the zeta potential showed a trend of increase, ranging from -38.77 to 46.07 mV. When SA was used as the outermost wall material, the nanoparticles exhibited a smaller particle size (240.1 nm) and better dispersibility. Electrostatic interaction and hydrogen bonding were the major forces involved in the formation of AKP-loaded NPs. X-ray diffraction revealed that AKP was successfully encapsulated in an amorphous state. Scanning electron microscopy showed that AKP-loaded NPs had an elliptical or blocky appearance. Moreover, AKP-loaded NPs demonstrated good storage and temperature stability, while nanoparticles with HTCC in the outermost layer (HTCC:SA=2:1) showed good pH and ionic stability. During simulated digestion, AKP-loaded NPs inhibited the release of AKP in gastric fluid. Consequently, the hypoglycemic activity of digested AKP-loaded NPs was remarkably higher than unencapsulated AKP. Notably, the nanoparticles with HTCC in the outermost layer provided superior hypoglycemic activity. In summary, the polysaccharide-based delivery system exhibited great potential to improve the stability and post-digestive hypoglycemic activity of AKP, broadening its applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Effects of Different Levels of Antarctic Krill Oil on the Ovarian Development of Macrobrachium rosenbergii

Antarctic krill oil has been proven to be able to promote the ovarian development of crustaceans, but its optimal application dose and potential regulatory mechanism in Macrobrachium rosenbergii are still unclear. In this study, five isonitrogenous and isolipidic diets with gradient additions of Antarctic krill oil (0%, 1.5%, 3%, 4.5%, and 6%) were served exposed to 8 weeks of feeding. The results show that 3–4.5% Antarctic krill oil supplementation significantly increases the weight gain rate and specific growth rate of M. rosenbergii (p < 0.05). In addition, 3–4.5% Antarctic krill oil supplementation significantly increased the content of hemolymph vitellogenin (VTG) and the levels of reproductive hormones, including methyl farnesoate (MF), estradiol (E2), and progesterone (P4) (p < 0.05). The differences in ovarian index, oocyte volume, yolk granule deposition in oocytes, and the transcription levels of VTG genes in hepatopancreas and ovarian tissues demonstrated that the addition of Antarctic krill oil significantly promoted ovarian development and vitellogenesis, especially at the 4.5% addition level. In terms of molecular signaling, this study confirms that the retinol metabolic signaling pathway, MF signaling pathway, steroid hormone signaling pathway, and ecdysone signaling pathway, along with their specific molecules, such as Farnesoic acid-O-methyltransferase (FAMeT), retinoid x receptor (RXR), ecdysone receptor (EcR), and estrogen-related receptor (ERR), are involved in the regulation of the ovarian development of M. rosenbergii by adding Antarctic krill oil at appropriate doses. The findings indicate that the supplementation of 4.5% Antarctic krill oil in the diet is optimal for stimulating the secretion of reproductive hormones in female M. rosenbergii, thereby promoting vitellogenesis and ovarian development.

Physicochemical Properties and Metal Ion-Binding Capacity of Thermal-Induced Antarctic Krill Protein Aggregates under Different pH Conditions.

Protein properties can be modified by thermal treatment at different pH values, resulting in the formation of protein aggregates with diverse morphologies and functionalities. This study investigated the morphology of aggregates of Antarctic krill protein (AKPS) formed by thermal treatment (90 °C, 15 min) at pH 2, 3, 4, and 6-12, characterized the different morphologies of AKPS, and determined the metal ion (Ca2+, Fe2+, and Zn2+)-binding capacities. Results showed that heat treatment with different pH values generated various AKPS with distinct morphology and metal ion-binding abilities. AKPS have formed fibrils at pH ≤ 3, particles at pH 4-7, and amorphous aggregates at pH ≥ 8. Fibrous AKPS (pH 2) exhibited a high solubility (80.36%) and strong reducing effect on iron. The binding capacities of Ca2+ and Fe2+ reached 36.08% and 66.75%. Particulate AKPS (pH 6 and 7) primarily only showed Zn2+-binding capacity similar to that of casein phosphopeptide (17.33%). Amorphous AKPS (pH 9-11) displayed the optimal capacity to bind Zn2+ and Fe2+ (26.90% and 74.94%). The alterations in morphology and functional characteristics of AKPS permit the design of various nanostructures for food-derived mineral supplements, thus developing their potential for application in functional foods.

Genomic insights into the cold adaptation and secondary metabolite potential of Pseudoalteromonas sp. WY3 from Antarctic krill

In the Antarctic marine ecosystem, krill play a pivotal role, yet the intricate microbial community intertwined with these diminutive crustaceans remains largely unmapped. In this study, we successfully isolated and characterized a unique bacterial strain, Pseudoalteromonas sp. WY3, from Antarctic krill. Genomic analysis revealed that WY3 harbors a multitude of genes associated with cold shock proteins, oxidoreductases, and enzymes involved in the osmotic stress response, equipping it with a robust molecular arsenal to withstand frigid Antarctic conditions. Furthermore, the presence of two distinct biosynthesis-related gene clusters suggests that WY3 has the potential to synthesize diverse secondary metabolites, including aryl polyenes and ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides. Notably, the identification of genes encoding enzymes crucial for biological immunity pathways, such as apeH and ubiC, hints at a complex symbiotic relationship between WY3 and its krill host. This comprehensive study highlights the robust potential of WY3 for secondary metabolite production and its remarkable ability to thrive at extremely low temperatures in the Antarctic ecosystem, shedding light on the interplay between culturable microorganisms and their hosts in harsh environments, and providing insights into the underexplored microbial communities associated with Antarctic marine organisms and their role in environmental adaptation and biotechnological applications.

Population changes in a Southern Ocean krill predator point towards regional Antarctic sea ice declines

While foraging, marine predators integrate information about the environment often across wide-ranging oceanic foraging grounds and reflect these in population parameters. One such species, the southern right whale (Eubalaena australis; SRW) has shown alterations to foraging behaviour, declines in body condition, and reduced reproductive rates after 2009 in the South African population. As capital breeders, these changes suggest decreased availability of their main prey at high-latitudes, Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba). This study analysed environmental factors affecting prey availability for this population over the past 40 years, finding a notable southward contraction in sea ice, a 15–30% decline in sea ice concentration, and a more than two-fold increase in primary production metrics after 2008. These environmental conditions are less supportive of Antarctic krill recruitment in known SRW foraging grounds. Additionally, marginal ice zone, sea ice concentration and two primary production metrics were determined to be either regionally significant or marginally significant predictors of calving interval length when analysed using a linear model. Findings highlight the vulnerability of recovering baleen whale populations to climate change and show how capital breeders serve as sentinels of ecosystem changes in regions that are difficult or costly to study.

Krill oil supplementation in vivo promotes increased fuel metabolism and protein synthesis in cultured human skeletal muscle cells

IntroductionKrill oil is a dietary supplement derived from Antarctic krill; a small crustacean found in the ocean. Krill oil is a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids, specifically eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, as well as the antioxidant astaxanthin. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of krill oil supplementation, compared to placebo oil (high oleic sunflower oil added astaxanthin), in vivo on energy metabolism and substrate turnover in human skeletal muscle cells.MethodsSkeletal muscle cells (myotubes) were obtained before and after a 7-week krill oil or placebo oil intervention, and glucose and oleic acid metabolism and leucine accumulation, as well as effects of different stimuli in vitro, were studied in the myotubes. The functional data were combined with proteomic and transcriptomic analyses.ResultsIn vivo intervention with krill oil increased oleic acid oxidation and leucine accumulation in skeletal muscle cells, however no effects were observed on glucose metabolism. The krill oil-intervention-induced increase in oleic acid oxidation correlated negatively with changes in serum low-density lipoprotein (LDL) concentration. In addition, myotubes were also exposed to krill oil in vitro. The in vitro study revealed that 24 h of krill oil treatment increased both glucose and oleic acid metabolism in myotubes, enhancing energy substrate utilization. Transcriptomic analysis comparing myotubes obtained before and after krill oil supplementation identified differentially expressed genes associated with e.g., glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, metabolic pathways and calcium signaling pathway, while proteomic analysis demonstrated upregulation of e.g., LDL-receptor in myotubes obtained after the krill oil intervention.ConclusionThese findings suggest that krill oil intervention promotes increased fuel metabolism and protein synthesis in human skeletal muscle cells, with potential implications for metabolic health.

High Fischer ratio oligopeptides from Antarctic krill: Ameliorating function and mechanism to alcoholic liver injury through regulating AMPK/Nrf2/IκBα pathways

In this study, we devoted attention to the hepatoprotective functions of high Fischer ratio oligopeptides (HFOPs) from Antarctic krill (HFOPs-AK) on alcoholic liver injury of mice. The results indicated that HFOPs-AK significantly improved the pathological state of mice liver and kidney, reduced alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST) activities, regulated lipid metabolism, and alleviated the burden on the liver. In addition, HFOPs-AK depicted anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects by reducing tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin 6 (IL-6) contents and increasing superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities to reduce malondialdehyde (MDA) level. The hepatoprotective mechanism of HFOPs-AK was further revealed by quantitative reverse transcription PCR (RT-qPCR) analysis, and the results proved that HFOPs-AK had the ability to stimulate the adenosine 5‘-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/nuclearrespiratoty factor 2 (Nrf2)/inhibitor of NF-κB (IκBα) signaling pathways, thereby regulating the expression levels of downstream factors. The activation of these signaling pathways is essential for the regulation of lipid metabolism as well as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant functions. This finding offers a novel approach for the development of innovative hepatoprotective agents utilizing HFOPs-AK.

Antarctic Krill Euphausia superba Oil Supplementation Attenuates Hypercholesterolemia, Fatty Liver, and Oxidative Stress in Diet-Induced Obese Mice.

Several Previous studies indicate that consuming krill oil may aid in reducing hypercholesterolemia and improving cholesterol metabolism. Therefore, our study was designed to investigate the effectiveness of Antarctic krill oil (Euphausia superba) (ESKO) in combating obesity and lowering fat/lipid/cholesterol levels. The study aimed to investigate the molecular docking model targeting 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGCR) using ESKO-derived eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and astaxanthin. In this study, histological alterations in the liver of the obesity model (ICR male mouse), obesity-related or antioxidant markers in both liver and serum, the molecular mechanisms in HepG2 cells and liver tissue, and HMGCR activity were analyzed. Our findings revealed that a high-fat diet (HFD) significantly led to increased oxidative stress, obesity-related indicators, and cardiovascular-associated risk indices. However, ESKO effectively mitigated HFD-induced oxidative stress, fat accumulation, and the suppression of low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) or activation of related molecular pathways. This was achieved through improvements in metabolic parameters, including CD36/liver X receptor α (LXRα)/sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c (SREBP1c), proprotein convertase subtilsin/kexin type 9 (PCSK-9), and HMGCR, ultimately ameliorating HFD-induced hypercholesterolemia and obesity. These beneficial findings indicate that ESKO might have significant potential for preventing and treating obesity-related disorders.

Ultrasound treatment improved gelling and emulsifying properties of myofibrillar proteins from Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba)

Antarctic krill is a promising source of marine proteins with abundant biomass and excellent nutritional profile, but has poor technological properties. Ultrasonic treatment at power levels of 0, 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 W was applied to improve the technological properties of Antarctic krill meat, and the changes in physicochemical properties of myofibrillar proteins (MPs) were investigated. The results indicated that proper ultrasonic treatment significantly improved the gelling properties of Antarctic krill meat, in terms of a more uniform and stable gel texture and better water holding capacity, which were related to better cross-linking of MPs. Ultrasonic treatment promoted the conversion of MPs’ secondary structures from α-helix and random coil to β-sheet and β-turn, thereby making the molecular structure soft and loose. In addition, at tertiary structure level, ultrasonic treatment exposed the hydrophobic groups and sulfhydryl groups within MPs, thereby improving the emulsifying properties by changing the intermolecular interactions and interface properties. Furthermore, the particle size of MPs decreased and exhibited a more uniform distribution, aligning with the enhanced interactions observed between MPs and oil. These results provide an insight into the efficient development of Antarctic krill by elucidating how the ultrasonic treatment improves the gelling and emulsifying properties based on structure modulation of myofibrillar proteins.

Inhibitory effect of L-arginine on the oxidative aggregation behavior of myofibrillar proteins in the Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba): pH and antioxidation

In this study, the effect of L-arginine (L-Arg) on the oxidative aggregation of myofibrillar proteins (MPs) in Antarctic krill was evaluated. The results showed that the oxidized aggregation of MPs was significantly inhibited after the addition of 20 mM L-Arg compared to the oxidized group, the solubility of MPs significantly increased by 25.74 %, the turbidity reduced from 0.56 to 0.18. These effects were primarily attributed to the addition of L-Arg, which prevented the unfolding of the spatial structure of MPs after oxidation, inhibited the formation of disulfide bonds and dityrosine, and improved the stability of MPs structure. Analysis of carbonyl content and hydroxyl radical (•OH) inhibitory capacity showed that carbonyl formation and hydroxyl radicals were effectively reduced by the pH and guanidinium group of L-Arg. The pH of L-Arg exhibited a significantly higher effect than the guanidinium group in inhibiting the oxidative aggregation of MPs.

Phase-Specific Immobilization of Phospholipase D as an Efficient Pickering Emulsion Interfacial Catalyst for Converting Antarctic Krill Oil Phospholipid.

Phosphatidylserine (PS), a rare phospholipid in Antarctic krill oil (AKO) critical for brain development, can be produced from the abundant phosphatidylcholine (PC) using phospholipase D (PLD) in Pickering emulsion interfacial catalysis (PIC) systems. However, the exposure of PLD to organic solvent around the emulsion interface diminished PLD activity, limiting the conversion efficiency of PS. In this study, we proposed a strategy to fabricate a PIC system with high efficiency and stability by immobilizing PLD in a specific phase on the emulsion interface, based on investigating the effect of the interfacial microenvironment on PLD activity. Janus-poly(acrylic acid)/polystyrene (JPP) and Janus-polyethylenimine/octadecane (JPO) particles were fabricated as carriers to realize the specific-phase immobilization of PLD. The highest activity was observed when PLD was immobilized on the hydrophilic side of JPP (PLD@JPP(W)), 1.9-fold that of free PLD. The catalytic efficiency of PLD@JPP(W) was 1.7-fold that of free PLD, confirmed by the kcat/Km value enhancement. Immobilization on the hydrophilic side also enhanced the thermal stability of PLD. The half-lives of PLD were extended from 4 to 36 h at 40 °C and from 6 to 28 days at 4 °C. Importantly, PLD@JPP(W) showed excellent catalytic efficiency as a PIC system, achieving a PS productivity of 93% within a short time of 2 h at an enzyme dosage of 0.05 mg. PLD@JPP(W) exhibited a 3.6 times higher yield than free PLD in the production of PS from PC rich in Antarctic krill oil. The strategy in this work could also be applied to other lipases, providing a promising method for the efficient conversion of functional lipids.

Fatty Acid Content and Lipid Nutritional Indexes in the Antarctic Krill Euphausia superba Collected from Three Regions of the Atlantic Sector of Antarctica.

The total lipid (TL) and fatty acid (FA) contents in tissues and body segments were studied in adult Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) caught in three regions of the Atlantic sector of Antarctica with different environmental conditions. Significant differences in lipid and FA status of the Antarctic krill tissues and body segments were observed in the regions. Main metabolic indices indicating quality of lipids showed that E.superba has a high nutritional value. In particular, lipids are highly unsaturated in the species and ratios of physiologically significant and essential FAs are favorable to human health. This was assumed to be a distinctive biochemical characteristic of the species. Data from the study can be used to form a scientifically based approach to further technological processing of raw krill and targeted extraction of certain substances and components of a lipid nature.

The complex coacervation of gum Arabic and krill protein isolate and their application for Antarctic krill oil encapsulation

Antarctic krill oil (AKO) possesses potent bioactivities but has limited applications in the food industry due to its poor stability, strong off-flavor, and low bioavailability of contained astaxanthin. In this study, Antarctic krill protein isolate (AKPI) was separated from processing by-product of krill and utilized as a novel wall material via complexing it with gum Arabic (GA) to improve the limitations of AKO. The strong complex coacervation reaction between AKPI and GA was occurred at the pH of 3.8 and the ratioAKPI-to-GA of 3:1, while electrostatic interaction and hydrogen-bond interaction were determined to be the main driving forces of such reaction. The ratiowall-to-core was confirmed as 1:0.75 after comprehensively assessing the effect of AKO content on the various properties of AKPI-GA coacervated microcapsules, while the wall material concentration and pH were optimized at 1 % and 3.8, respectively. The obtained solid AKO microcapsules exhibited the encapsulation efficiency of 80.22 %. AKPI-GA coacervated microcapsules extremely masked the odor of AKO and achieved the controlled-release of AKO in the gastrointestinal tract. Meanwhile, the encapsulated AKO displayed higher astaxanthin retention and oxidative stability compared with non-encapsulated AKO during storage.

The change rule of lipid oxidation and hydrolysis driven via water in Antarctic krill oil: Based on association colloid formation

The residual water and amphiphilic compounds such as phospholipids in bulk oil can form reverse micelles, which affect oxidative stability. In this study, the Antarctic krill oil (AKO) samples with different water contents were subjected to accelerated storage. During storage, AKO exhibited oxidative changes, manifested as increased POV, TBARS values, and volatile compound levels but decreased PUFA percentages. Meanwhile, AKO underwent hydrolysis, evidenced by decreased PC, PE, and TG contents but increased FFA contents. Moreover, the degree of lipid oxidation and hydrolysis is dose-dependent with water added. Cryogenic scanning electron microscopy imaging and micelle size distribution measurement proved the presence of reverse micelle, and their size and interfacial area improved with increased water contents. Correlation analysis suggested that lipid oxidation and hydrolysis positively correlated with the size and interfacial area of reverse micelle. Therefore, it is speculated that the oil-water interface may be the site of lipid oxidation and hydrolysis.

Evaluating the hypoxic tolerance of two maturity stages of Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) at its range edge

AbstractThe South Georgia region of the Southern Ocean represents the northernmost range edge for Antarctic krill. Of concern is the extent to which rapid warming of surface water temperatures and reduced oxygen contents around this region might challenge the physiological tolerance of krill, particularly the later maturity stages. Hypoxia is generally considered to be less than 30 to 20% of air saturation, hereafter as threshold hypoxia, while less than 10% of air saturation would qualify as severe hypoxia. These levels are unlikely to occur in the Southern Ocean but might happen in the middle of dense krill swarms. We investigated gene expression and biochemical markers related to aerobic metabolism, antioxidant defence, and heat-shock response under 6-h threshold (4 kPa; TH) and 1-h severe (0.6 kPa; SH) hypoxia exposure, to understand how hypoxia might alter respiratory and biochemical pathways in adult and subadult krill. After 6-h TH, subadults induced expression of citrate synthase (CS), and mitochondrial superoxide dismutase (also after 1-h SH) over normoxic expression levels. The maturity stages responded differently in glutathione peroxidase (1-h SH; lower in subadults and higher in adults), and CS (6-h TH; higher in subadults and lower in adults) activities as for the oxidative damage marker to lipids (6-h TH; lower in subadults and higher in adults). Subadults had a greater capacity than adults to deal with hypoxic conditions. This may be a strategy allowing them to exist in larger swarms to reduce predation pressure before reaching reproductive condition.

Association of density and sound-speed contrast with maturity stage of Antarctic krill in the eastern Indian sector of the Southern Ocean

Association of density and sound-speed contrast with maturity stage of Antarctic krill in the eastern Indian sector of the Southern Ocean

Buckwheat protein as macromolecular emulsifier to stabilize antarctic krill oil-loaded emulsion: Study on physicochemical properties, microstructure, and functional properties

Buckwheat protein (BP) was studied in relation to oil phase volume fractions for the preparation of Antarctic krill oil (AKO) emulsions. The physicochemical properties and microstructure of BP-AKO emulsions were examined using zeta potential, droplet size, rheology, and laser confocal microscopy. The bioavailability of astaxanthin in AKO was assessed through in vitro digestion experiments. Among the emulsions tested, the BP-AKO (5–60%) emulsion, containing 5% protein and 60% oil phase, displayed the smallest particle size (1.86 μm), highest absolute zeta potential value (47.88 mV), and greatest interfacial protein adsorption rate (89.00%), indicating superior stability. Oxidative stability experiments revealed that the BP-AKO (5–60%) emulsion exhibited the lowest production of lipid hydroperoxides and malondialdehyde, reflecting excellent oxidative stability. Furthermore, the highest release of free fatty acids from the BP-AKO (5–60%) emulsion occurred during in vitro digestion, peaking at 70.17% after 120 min. The bioavailability of astaxanthin also reached a maximum value of 50.37%. This study provides experimental support for the use of macromolecular cereal proteins as emulsifiers to stabilize Antarctic krill oil.

Exome capture of Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) for cost effective genotyping and population genetics with historical collections.

Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba Dana) is a keystone species in the Southern Ocean ecosystem, with ecological and commercial significance. However, its vulnerability to climate change requires an urgent investigation of its adaptive potential to future environmental conditions. Historical museum collections of krill from the early 20th century represent an ideal opportunity to investigate how krill have changed over time due to predation, fishing and climate change. However, there is currently no cost-effective method for implementing population scale collection genomics for krill given its genome size (48 Gbp). Here, we assessed the utility of two inexpensive methods for population genetics using historical krill samples, specifically low-coverage shotgun sequencing (i.e. 'genome-skimming') and exome capture. Two full-length transcriptomes were generated and used to identify 166 putative gene targets for exome capture bait design. A total of 20 historical krill samples were sequenced using shotgun and exome capture. Mitochondrial and nuclear ribosomal sequences were assembled from both low-coverage shotgun and off-target of exome capture data demonstrating that endogenous DNA sequences could be assembled from historical collections. Although, mitochondrial and ribosomal sequences are variable across individuals from different populations, phylogenetic analysis does not identify any population structure. We find exome capture provides approximately 4500-fold enrichment of sequencing targeted genes, suggesting this approach can generate the sequencing depth required to call identify a significant number of variants. Unlocking historical collections for genomic analyses using exome capture, will provide valuable insights into past and present biodiversity, resilience and adaptability of krill populations to climate change.

Construction of foam-templated Antarctic krill oil oleogel based on pea protein fibril and ι-carrageenan

Edible plant-based oleogels with zero trans-fat are promising solid fat substitutes. In this study, Antarctic krill oil (AKO) oleogels prepared from pea protein fibril (PPF) and ι-carrageenan (CG) by foam-templated method were developed for the first time. The modulation of the ratio of PPF and CG concentration on the structure and properties of foam, cryogel and oleogel was investigated and the potential formation mechanism of the foam-templated oleogel was explained. The results demonstrated that the addition of CG significantly decreased the foam size and enhanced the foam stability. The oil absorption and oil holding ability of the dense and reticular porous structure of the cryogel was demonstrated. Fourier infrared spectroscopy confirmed the interaction between PPF and CG involved in the formation of cryogels. With the addition of CG, the network structure and mechanical strength of the cryogel were reinforced, leading to more compact pores and higher capillary suction, which was appropriate for the establishment of good viscoelastic semi-solid oleogels. In addition, the oleogel was effective in masking the fishy odor of AKO. The significance of this study lies in its provision of a novel approach to the preparation of the foam-templated oleogel with PPF and CG as the oleogelators.

Analysis of volatile flavor compounds in Antarctic krill paste with different processing methods based on GC-IMS.

In this study, shrimp paste was prepared using Antarctic krill and fermented Antarctic krill shrimp paste as raw materials. Two commonly used heating methods, stir-fried and steaming, were analyzed, the main difference between the two methods being that stir-frying involves putting the shrimp paste into a wok and stir-frying it for different periods of time, while steaming involves putting the shrimp paste into a steamer and steaming it for different periods of time. The effects of different salt concentrations and processing techniques on the volatile flavor compounds of shrimp paste were also observed. Electronic nose and gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (GC-IMS) were employed to analyze the volatile flavor compounds. A total of 52 volatile flavor compounds were detected by GC-IMS, of which 38 were identified (including monomers, dimers, and polymers). The identified compounds included 11 aldehydes, 6 ketones, 14 alcohols, 2 esters, 2 acids, 1 pyridine compound, and 2 sulfur compounds. In addition, 14 compounds were identifiable. Using the results of the electronic nose analysis, we were also able to differentiate between the volatile flavor compounds in shrimp pastes produced by different processing methods.