EU Air Quality Standards Research Articles

Assessing the Effectiveness of Air Quality Improvements in Polish Cities Aspiring to Be Sustainably Smart

Environmental and climate protection is one of the areas of development of modern smart cities intensively exposed in the literature. Nevertheless, it often remains only a scientific postulate or a strategic record of city authorities. With these circumstances in mind, this article addresses conceptual assumptions with actual achievements in improving air quality in 16 Polish cities aspiring to be smart. In this way, an answer is sought to the following research problem: To what extent do Polish cities aspiring to be smart and operating in a developing economy realize the climate quality improvement goals exposed today by the smart city concept and the environmental requirements of the European Union? The research was conducted in a long-term perspective covering the period from 2010 (entry into force of EU air quality standards) to 2022. In addition, with reference to contemporary urban environmental studies, special attention was paid to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on air quality in the surveyed cities. In the course of the study, data on PM10 concentrations were used and statistically analyzed using measures of variability and cluster analysis as an unsupervised classification method. The results allow the formulation of the following key conclusions: (1) PM10 levels were systematically reduced in all 16 cities studied, which allows a positive assessment of the municipal authorities’ efforts to improve urban air quality; (2) the leaders in the effectiveness of PM10 reduction are Warsaw and Wrocław; and (3) after the COVID-19 pandemic, most of the cities studied managed to maintain or improve urban air quality. The originality of the considerations and analysis undertaken is due to the following considerations: (1) to fill the research gap in terms of the long-term assessment of the effectiveness of air quality improvement in cities aspiring to be smart and located in developing or emerging economies; (2) to make a cognitive contribution to the environmental research stream on smart city development (gaining knowledge on the effectiveness of cities’ actions to improve air quality); and (3) to conduct an analysis of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on air quality in Polish cities located in various provinces.

PREDICTION OF FINE PARTICULATE MATTER IN LOW-EMISSION ZONES USING A MODIFIED NUMERICAL METHOD FOR A SYSTEM OF ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Currently, many European cities have severely exceeded the EU air quality standards and are struggling with high concentrations of fine particulate matter PM10 and PM2.5 in the air, with road transport often being one of the major polluters. One of the forms for correction of the problem that many cities in the EU are currently using is the construction of low-emission zones. For the prediction of PM10 and PM2.5, a modified numerical method for a system of ordinary differential equations has been proposed. In the right part of this system, in addition to the main trend and the periodicity of PM10 and PM2.5, their correlation is taken into account. Against the background of the best solution obtained, a forecast is made for the emission levels in a period of one week in the town of Ruse.

Improving Air Quality Standards in Europe: Comparative Analysis of Regional Differences, with a Focus on Northern Italy

The study reports a consistent comparison of emission inventories, concentration trends, and PM source apportionment in different European regions and, mostly, a thorough investigation of meteorological parameters influencing atmospheric pollutants’ dispersion. The study focuses on the reasons why Northern Italy still has difficulties complying with EU air quality standards for PM10 and NO2, despite strong emission reductions. The study demonstrates that, in the colder seasons, wind speed, PBL height, and atmospheric pressure in the Po basin are three to five times less efficient at diluting and dispersing pollutants than those occurring in regions north of the Alps. Since air quality standards aim at countering health impacts, it is advisable to consider atmospheric particulate toxicity in addition to PM10/PM2.5 mass concentration as a limit value. A discussion is reported about PM toxicity factors depending on source-specific aerosols and PM composition. We obtained PM toxicity factors that can vary by 10 times (according to carbonaceous content) across Europe, suggesting that, even at the same mass concentration, the effects of PM10/PM2.5 on human health are significantly variable. Modern PM source apportionment and reliable toxicity and epidemiological analyses represent the correct tools to build a new consistent health metric for ambient PM.

Has the ultra low emission zone in London improved air quality?

London introduced the world’s most stringent emissions zone, the Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ), in April 2019 to reduce air pollutant emissions from road transport and accelerate compliance with the EU air quality standards. Combining meteorological normalisation, change point detection, and a regression discontinuity design with time as the forcing variable, we provide an ex-post causal analysis of air quality improvements attributable to the London ULEZ. We observe that the ULEZ caused only small improvements in air quality in the context of a longer-term downward trend in London’s air pollution levels. Structural changes in nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and ozone (O3) concentrations were detected at 70% and 24% of the (roadside and background) monitoring sites and amongst the sites that showed a response, the relative changes in air pollution ranged from −9% to 6% for NO2, −5% to 4% for O3, and −6% to 4% for particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 μm (PM2.5). Aggregating the responses across London, we find an average reduction of less than 3% for NO2 concentrations, and insignificant effects on O3 and PM2.5 concentrations. As other cities consider implementing similar schemes, this study implies that the ULEZ on its own is not an effective strategy in the sense that the marginal causal effects were small. On the other hand, the ULEZ is one of many policies implemented to tackle air pollution in London, and in combination these have led to improvements in air quality that are clearly observable. Thus, reducing air pollution requires a multi-faceted set of policies that aim to reduce emissions across sectors with coordination among local, regional and national government.

To what extent the traffic restriction policies applied in Barcelona city can improve its air quality?

Barcelona city (Spain) is applying a series of traffic restriction measures that aim at renewing and reducing the amount of circulating vehicles to improve air quality. The measures include changes in the built environment to reduce private vehicle space in specific areas through the so-called “superblocks” and tactical urban planning actions, along with the implementation of a city-wide Low Emission Zone (LEZ) that restricts the entry of the most polluting vehicles to the city. Our study quantifies the impact of these measures in the greater area of Barcelona combining a coupled macroscopic traffic and pollutant emission model with a multi-scale air quality model. Our modelling system allows estimating the effect of different traffic restrictions upon traffic and the associated emissions and air quality levels at a very high resolution (20 m). The measures were evaluated both individually and collectively to assess both their relative and overall impact upon emissions and air quality. We show that in the absence of traffic demand reductions, the application of isolated measures that reduce private vehicle space, either through superblocks or tactical urban planning, have no overall emission impacts; only localized street-level NOx positive and negative changes (±17%) are found due to traffic re-routing and the generation of new bottlenecks. It is only when these measures are combined with optimistic fleet renewal as a result of the LEZ implementation and demand reductions, that relevant global emission reductions in NOx are obtained (−13% and −30%, respectively) with estimated NO2 reductions of −36% and −23% at the two traffic air quality monitoring stations. Despite the potential improvements, our simulations suggest that current measures are insufficient to comply with EU air quality standards and that further traffic restriction policies to reduce traffic demand are needed.

Air quality impact assessment for the Eurasia Tunnel in Istanbul, Turkey.

The Eurasia Tunnel, a 5.4-km tunnel connecting the Asian and European sides of Istanbul, Turkey, was opened for operation in December 2016. This paper describes the air quality modeling that was conducted during the design phase of the structure, to evaluate the impact of the tunnel traffic on ambient air quality in the vicinity of the tunnel. The ventilation of the tunnel consists of longitudinal forced ventilation with vertical extraction through two stacks located near the Asian and European portals of the tunnel. The analysis was conducted using the AERMOD computer program for three pollutants CO, NO2, and PM10. Model results show that pollutants will rapidly disperse once released from the stack and will not affect air quality in the vicinity of the tunnel. The most critical parameters which controlled the ventilation system design were found to be NO2 and PM10. Maximum concentrations are not expected to violate the pertinent Turkish and EU air quality standards. Overall, this analysis shows that the ventilation system is efficient for the dispersion of the pollutants.

The influence of local emissions and regional air pollution transport on a European air pollution hot spot.

The EU air quality standards have been frequently exceeded in one of the European air pollution hot spots: Ostrava. The aim of this study was to perform an air quality comparison between an urban site (Radvanice), which has a nearby metallurgical complex, and a suburban site (Plesná) to estimate air pollution sources and determine their local and/or regional origins. Twenty-four hour PM1 and PM10 (particular matter) concentrations, detailed mass size distributions (MSDs) to distinguish the sources of the fine and coarse PM, and their chemical compositions were investigated in parallel at both sites during the winter of 2014. Positive matrix factorization (PMF) was applied to the PM1 and PM10 chemical compositions to investigate their sources. During the measurement campaign, prevailing northeastern-southwestern (NE-SW) wind directions (WDs) were recorded. Higher average PM10 concentration was measured in Radvanice than in Plesná, whereas PM1 concentrations were similar at both sites. A source apportionment analysis revealed six and five sources for PM10 and PM1, respectively. In Radvanice, the amount of PM and the most chemical species were similar under SW and NE WD conditions. The dominant sources were industrial (43% for PM10 and 27% for PM1), which were caused by a large metallurgical complex located to the SW, and biomass burning (25% for PM10 and 36% for PM1). In Plesná, the concentrations of PM and all species significantly increased under NE WD conditions. Secondary inorganic aerosols were dominant, with the highest contributions deriving from the NE WD. Therefore, regional pollution transport from the industrial sector in Silesian Province (Poland) was evident. Biomass burning contributed 22% and 24% to PM10 and PM1, respectively. The air quality in Ostrava was influenced by local sources and regional pollution transport. The issue of poor air quality in this region is complex. Therefore, international cooperation from both states (the Czech Republic and Poland) is needed to achieve a reduction in air pollution levels.

Evaluation of EU air quality standards through modeling and the FAIRMODE benchmarking methodology

We evaluate air quality modeling over the East Mediterranean using the benchmarking methodology developed in the framework of the Forum for Air Quality Modelling in Europe (FAIRMODE). FAIRMODE aims to provide a harmonized approach of model evaluation for regulatory purposes. We test the methodology by assessing the performance of the Weather Research and Forecasting model coupled with chemistry (WRF-Chem) against ground-based air quality observations over Cyprus, a member state of the European Union. Two nested domains are used (at 50- and 10-km horizontal grid spacing) with the comparison performed over the innermost domain. We consider performance indicators reflecting regulations for air quality standards (maximum daily 8-hourly mean ozone, hourly nitrogen dioxide, and daily fine particulate matter concentrations). The WRF-Chem model is found to satisfy the proposed performance objectives regarding ozone and NO2, though it underestimates the latter in urban areas possibly due to uncertainties in emission inventories. Fine particulate matter is well represented by the model, except on days with strong influence from natural sources, highlighting the necessity for fine-tuning dust mobilization and transport in the region. The objectives are fulfilled even though discrepancies exist between model and observations. Our results indicate the need for more stringent performance criteria at relatively low concentrations. Overall, we find that the methodology provides in-depth information and relevant statistical metrics to guide air quality and model assessments for monitoring compliance with the EU Air Quality Directives and other guidelines to limit the impact of air pollution on human health and ecosystems.

Evaluation of mitigation measures for air quality in Italy in 2020 and 2030

A large portion of the Italian population is exposed to high air pollution levels exceeding both European and WHO standards. To face this serious environmental risk, several efforts have been undertaken at policy-administration level in Italy and a national-regional cooperation act (the Po Basin Agreement, PBA) was adopted in 2013 in Northern Italy. The signatory parties agreed to identify and implement concerted actions contrasting air pollution, in addition to measures already in place. In this paper, a first evaluation of the identified measures has been carried out using the MINNI model, an integrated assessment model that allows the impact evaluation of emission variations. Assuming that PBA measures are applied in the whole Italian territory and focusing on residential heating, road transport and agriculture, the consequent impact on air quality was assessed for the scenario years 2020 and 2030. The Current Legislation scenario for the year 2030 shows that neither the national emission ceilings (NEC) nor the European air quality standards would be reached with the measures already in place and that additional actions are needed. The PBA 2030 scenario shows the attainment of the NEC targets, but non-compliance for daily PM10, daily maxima of 8 h running means of O 3 and annual PM2.5 concentrations still remains. • The integrated assessment model MINNI was applied to study the Po Basin Agreement measures for reducing air pollution. • The 2030 CLE scenario does not allow to reach neither the NEC emission ceilings nor the EU air quality standards. • The 2030 PBA scenario would allow the attainment of the NEC ceilings but not the attainment of the AQ standards.

Practicalities of mapping PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations on city-wide scales using a portable particulate monitor.

Fine particulate matter is considered to be the most significant ambient air pollutant in terms of potential health impacts. Therefore, it is important that regulators are able to accurately assess the exposure of populations to PM10 and PM2.5 across municipal areas. We report on the practicalities of using a laser light scattering portable particulate monitor (Turnkey Instruments DustMate), in combination with a GPS, to map PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations on city-wide scales in Newcastle upon Tyne/Gateshead (UK), during a series of walking surveys. A heated inlet is necessary to remove moisture droplets from the sampled air prior to analysis by the instrument, though this also results in the loss of volatile particulate components, particularly from the PM2.5 fraction. A co-location calibration study was carried out with a reference urban background Tapered Element Oscillating Micro-Balance/Filter Dynamics Measuring System (TEOM-FDMS) system in Newcastle that is part of the UK’s Automatic Urban and Rural Network (AURN) of air quality monitoring stations. For PM10, orthogonal regression of the DustMate against TEOM-FDMS data gave a slope and intercept of 1.02 ± 0.06 and −3.7 ± 1.2, respectively (R 2 = 0.73), whereas for PM2.5, the respective values were 0.78 ± 0.06 and −0.63 ± 0.55 (R 2 = 0.79). These parameters are comparable to literature calibration studies using this technology. There was good agreement between simultaneous samples taken using two DustMate instruments: for PM10, a slope and intercept of 1.05 ± 0.03 and 0.36 ± 0.5, respectively (R 2 = 0.73), were obtained, whereas for the PM2.5, the respective values were 0.79 ± 0.01 and 0.19 ± 0.06 (R 2 = 0.86). Correction factors based on the slope and intercepts obtained from the calibration exercise were applied to raw data collected from the DustMate. An annually-normalised correction procedure was then used to account for different background particulate concentrations on different sampling days. These corrected PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations and corresponding GPS coordinates were displayed on a base map using Google Fusion Tables and Google Earth Professional. Almost all areas surveyed in Newcastle/Gateshead were well below the EU Air Quality Standards for PM10 and PM2.5.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s11869-016-0394-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Spatial variability of fine and coarse particle composition and sources in Cyprus

Southern and Eastern European countries exceed WHO and EU air quality standards very often, and are influenced by both local and external sources from Europe, Asia and Africa. However, there are limited data on particle composition and source profiles. We collected PM2.5 and PM10 samples (particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 and 10μm, respectively) in four cities in Cyprus using Harvard Impactors. Measurements were conducted between January 2012 and January 2013. We analyzed these samples for mass concentration and chemical composition, and conducted a source apportionment analysis using Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF).All sites complied with PM2.5 and PM10 WHO daily standards for most of the days. As in other Eastern European countries, we found higher sulfate contribution and less organic carbon than in the Western and central Europe. For PM2.5, seven source types were identified including regional sulfur, traffic emissions, biomass, re-suspended soil, oil combustion, road dust, and sea salt. In all four sites, regional sulfur was the predominant source (>30%). High inter-site correlations were observed for both PM2.5 component concentrations and source contributions, may be because a large fraction of PM2.5 is transported. Finally, for PM10-2.5 (coarse particles with aerodynamic diameter between 2.5 and 10μm) three sources were identified, which include road dust, soil, and sea salt. Significant inter-site correlations were also observed for coarse particles. All dust storm samples, except one, had PM levels below the daily standard. However, mineral dust, defined as the total mass of crustal metal oxides, increased up to ten times during the dust events.

Trace Elements in Ambient Air at Porto Metropolitan Area—Checking for Compliance with New European Union (Eu) Air Quality Standards

Because of the scientific evidence showing that arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), and nickel (Ni) are human genotoxic carcinogens, the European Union (EU) recently set target values for metal concentration in ambient air (As: 6 ng/m3, Cd: 5 ng/m3, Ni: 20 ng/m3). The aim of our study was to determine the concentration levels of these trace elements in Porto Metropolitan Area (PMA) in order to assess whether compliance was occurring with these new EU air quality standards. Fine (PM2.5) and inhalable (PM10) air particles were collected from October 2011 to July 2012 at two different (urban and suburban) locations in PMA. Samples were analyzed for trace elements content by inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The study focused on determination of differences in trace elements concentration between the two sites, and between PM2.5 and PM10, in order to gather information regarding emission sources. Except for chromium (Cr), the concentration of all trace elements was higher at the urban site. However, results for As, Cd, Ni, and lead (Pb) were well below the EU limit/target values (As: 1.49 ± 0.71 ng/m3; Cd: 1.67 ± 0.92 ng/m3; Ni: 3.43 ± 3.23 ng/m3; Pb: 17.1 ± 10.1 ng/m3) in the worst-case scenario. Arsenic, Cd, Ni, Pb, antimony (Sb), selenium (Se), vanadium (V), and zinc (Zn) were predominantly associated to PM2.5, indicating that anthropogenic sources such as industry and road traffic are the main source of these elements. High enrichment factors (EF > 100) were obtained for As, Cd, Pb, Sb, Se, and Zn, further confirming their anthropogenic origin.

Modelling PM2.5 impact indicators in Europe: Health effects and legal compliance

Long-term exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) has been shown to have significant negative impacts on human health. It is estimated that current levels of air pollution shorten the statistical life expectancy of European citizens by several months. The GAINS integrated assessment model calculates shortening of life expectancy from population exposure to PM2.5 using epidemiologically-derived health impact functions. In addition, GAINS estimates PM2.5 concentrations at 1875 air quality monitoring stations located in diverse environments ranging from remote background locations to busy street canyons. In this article, different approaches to dealing with the PM2.5 pollution problem are compared. We assess for the present and future the attainment of EU and WHO air quality standards for PM2.5 and estimate the loss of life expectancy under different policy scenarios developed for the ongoing revision of the EU Air Quality Legislation.

Intervention assessments in the control of PM10emissions from an urban waste transfer station

While vehicle emissions present the most widespread cause of breaches of EU air quality standards in urban areas of the UK, the greatest PM10 concentrations are often recorded close to small industrial sites with significant and long-term public exposure within close proximity. This is particularly the case in London, where monitoring in densely populated locations, adjacent to waste transfer stations (WTS), routinely report the highest PM10 concentrations in the city. This study aims to assess the impact of dust abatement measures taken at a WTS in west London and, in so doing, develop analysis techniques transferrable to other similar industrial situations. The study was performed in a 'blinded fashion', i.e., no details of operating times, activities or remediation measures were provided prior to the analysis. The study established that PM10 concentrations were strongly related to the industrial area's working hours and atmospheric humidity. The primary source of local particulate matter during working hours was found to be from the industrial area itself, not from the adjacent road serving the site. CUSUM analysis revealed a strong, sustained change point coinciding with a number of modifications at the WTS. Analysis suggested that introducing a vehicle washer bay, leading to a less dry and dusty yard, and ceasing stock piling and waste handling activities outside of the open shed had the greatest effect on PM10 concentrations. The techniques developed in this study should empower licensing authorities to more effectively characterise and mitigate particulate matter generated by urban industrial activities, thereby improving the health and quality of life of the local population.

Atmospheric PM10 particle concentration measurements at central and peripheral urban sites in Athens and Thessaloniki, Greece

The analysis of the PM10 particle measurements at the two major urban areas of Greece, Athens and Thessaloniki, showed that the mean monthly PM10 concentrations at the central urban stations, are on the average about twice as high than the corresponding ones at the examined peripheral stations. The distribution of the daily PM10 values shows significant violations of the EU air quality standards, especially in the central urban stations. At the peripheral stations comparable distributions of PM10 concentration values are found. The highest PM10 hourly values are recorded at the central urban stations during the cold semester of the year and during the morning hours. The scatter-plot diagrams of the central urban daily PM10 mean values versus the peripheral stations show important influence of the regional aerosol episodes on the measured PM10 concentrations in the urban areas of Athens and Thessaloniki, which is stronger in Athens and during the warm semester of the year. The PM10 diurnal variation pattern are quite similar with the corresponding variations observed for primary urban pollutants, like the morning and the evening peaks, but also at the peripheral stations exhibit a broad mid-day peak indicating elevated rural background PM10 levels. Additional daily measurements at the rural station of Aliartos in Central Greece give PM10 average values around 30 μg m-3, comparable to the corresponding average PM10 values of the peripheral stations in Athens and Thessaloniki. Such high rural background PM10 daily mean values could lead to average annual values higher than the corresponding EU PM10 standard (40 μg m-3) and should be taken into account in the formulation of the local pollution abatement strategies as they represent about the half of the average PM10 levels measured at the central urban stations of both examined urban areas.

Inhalable railroad particles at ground level and subterranean stations – Physical and chemical properties and relation to train traffic

The paper compares PM10 concentrations in railroad environments with EU air quality standards and characterizes particle concentrations and particle properties in relation to train traffic. The results show that PM10 concentrations in ground-level railroad environments do not exceed the EU directive 24-h limit value, while on the platforms of the two subterranean stations PM10 concentrations were far above the outdoor limit value. Diurnal and weekly patterns in PM10 concentration could be identified, co-varying with train traffic intensity. The particle mass size distribution peaked at around 2–6μm. The elemental composition of PM10 at the subterranean stations was dominated by Fe.

Health effects of long-term exposure to air pollution: An overview of major respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and diabetes

Large number of studies provided convincing evidence for adverse effects of exposure to outdoor air pollution on human health, and served as basis for current USA and EU Air Quality Standards and limit values. Still, new knowledge is emerging, expanding our understanding of vast effects of exposure to air pollution on human health of this ubiquitous exposure affecting millions of people in urban setting. This paper focuses on the studies of health effects of long-term (chronic) exposures to air pollution, and includes major chronic and acute diseases in adults and especially elderly, which will present increasing public health burden, due to improving longevity and projected increasing numbers of elderly. The paper gives overview over the most relevant and latest literature presented by different health outcomes: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, pneumonia, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes.

Assessing PM10source reduction in urban agglomerations for air quality compliance

The objective of this work was to study PM(10) and PM(2.5) concentration data available from monitoring stations in two large urban agglomerations in Greece and to estimate the emissions reduction required for compliance with the EU Air Quality Standards (AQS) for particulate matter. The cities studied are namely the Athens and Thessaloniki Metropolitan Areas (AMA and TMA, respectively). PM(10) concentrations during the period 2001-2010 have been evaluated for 15 air quality monitoring stations in the two urban areas. It was found that the concentrations of PM(10) during the period studied constantly exceeded the threshold values at the traffic and industrial stations in TMA and most of the traffic sites in AMA. Most of the occurrences of non-attainment to the daily AQSs were observed during the winter period at all stations (more pronounced for TMA stations). The reduction in current emission source strength to meet the air quality goal was calculated by the rollback equation using PM(10) day-averaged concentrations over the selected period at each station. Among the lognormal and Weibull distributions, the lognormal distribution was found to best fit the frequency distributions of PM(10) concentrations at the selected stations. The results showed that the minimum reduction required in order to meet the AQS in the AMA ranges from approximately 20 to 38% and up to 11% for traffic and background stations, respectively. Reductions in the range of 31% for traffic and 44% for industrial areas in TMA are also required. The same methodology was applied to PM(2.5) concentrations in the AMA and showed that emission reductions up to 31% are necessary in order to meet the 2020 EU AQS. Finally, continuous concentration data of organic (OC) and elementary carbon (EC) in PM(2.5) were used to study the possibility of achieving specific emission attenuation objectives in AMA.

Airborne particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) and associated metals in urban Turkey

Airborne particulate matter (PM) and associated metals were measured in a district of an industrial city in Western Turkey. We compared PM concentrations in Bursa, Turkey (Nilufer district) with international air quality standards. Turkish legislature adopted the EC Air Quality Framework in 2008, and compliance is required in the medium term. State-of-the-art reference methods were used for all measurements. A Partisol sampler measured urban background PM2.5 and PM10 between May 2007 and April 2008, and PM2.5 samples were later analysed for selected metals using ICP-MS. Average PM2.5 and PM10 mass concentrations over the year were 53 and 83 μg/m3, respectively. The annual mean PM2.5:PM10 ratio in Bursa was 0.64. PM2.5 and PM10 were highly correlated at the site (R = 0.91 overall), especially in winter. In the cold seasons, the coarse and fine fractions were strongly correlated R = 0.67 (p < 0.1), while in the warm seasons, they were not (R = 0.01). Sampler results correlated well with a nearby Government sampler. Current PM10 and PM2.5 levels in Bursa breach current and prospective EU air quality standards, with significant implications in public health.

Local air quality: A growing concern to airport management

Meeting the demand for increased mobility, airports are adapting their infrastructure, but face the challenge of controlling their emissions in the light of the EU air quality standards. A possible way out is a joint and combined approach where the various aviation industry partners (airports, airlines, manufacturers and service providers) team up to develop and implement comprehensive mitigation programmes. Such programmes could include technological, regulatory, operational and economic measures alike.