Ethological Categories Research Articles

The first record of the trace fossils Cochlichnus from the Pennsylvanian continental and marine deposits in the Donets Basin, Ukraine

Sinusoidal trace fossils Cochlichnus anguineus are described for the first time from marine and continental siltstones and sandstones of the Mospyne and Smolyanynivka formations (late Bashkirian, Early Pennsylvanian) in Luhansk Oblast, eastern Ukraine (central Donets Basin). Previously, in Ukraine, Cochlichnus anguineus was recorded in the early Bashkirian Buzhanka Formation of the Lviv Paleozoic Trough. Cochlichnus isp. is known from the Ediacaran of western Ukraine. The studied ichnofossils come from four localities representing sedimentary sequences of shallow marine, lagoonal, and lacustrine terrigenous rocks. The ichnogenus Cochlichnus Hitchcock, 1858 is known from the Precambrian to Holocene and were generally distributed in non-marine environments in the Carboniferous, although it has been recorded in a wide range of environments, from lacustrine (Mermia Ichnofacies) to marine (Cruziana Ichnofacies). In the Pennsylvanian deposits of eastern Ukraine, these trace fossils are predominantly found in lacustrine black shales, but also in lagoonal siltstones and shallow marine sandstones and siltstones. Cochlichnus has been interpreted as traces of grazing, feeding, and locomotion, and it is suggested that traces, depending on the environmental conditions and potential producers, may be combinations of all these ethological categories. Potential producers of Cochlichnus include worms sensu lato, as well as nematodes, annelids, insect larvae, or cyclostomates. In modern freshwater basins, traces morphologically similar to Cochlichnus are produced by nematodes and dipteran larvae. It seems that nematodes and/or annelids are the most likely producers of the studied Cochlichnus, since representatives of Diptera are not known in the Carboniferous. In the Donets Basin, Cochlichnus anguineus usually co-occurs with the trace fossils Lockeia, Planolites, and Palaeophycus. Sometimes these ichnofossils are found on the layer surfaces bearing microbially induced sedimentary structures together with Taphrhelminthopsis and Aulichnites.

Dictyodora-Nereites dominated ichnofauna in the Silurian−Devonian turbidite-like deposits of central-western Gondwana (San Rafael Block, Argentina): New stratigraphic and bathymetric constraints

The Río Seco de los Castaños Formation (San Rafael Block) holds one of the few middle Palaeozoic (Silurian−Devonian) records worldwide of a Nereites-Dictyodora dominated ichnofauna with sedimentological features such as oscillatory and combined-flow deposits. This record is associated with microbial mats in fine-grained intervals between turbidite-like deposits documented above the storm wave base. In this work, a detailed sedimentological study permitted to divide the unit into two informal sections separated by an erosional unconformity attributed to a sea level fall. Prograding turbidite-like sand-grained deposits document gravitational turbulent flows. The tectonostratigraphic framework allowed to disregard a submarine fan, whereas the unconformity does not support an autocyclic deltaic evolution. Palaeocurrents and palaeoslope indicators to the SW suggest a high source area to the NE, that contrasts with the well-established E-W trend of most of the units of similar age in the Cuyania terrane. Deposition was probably deflected by subaqueous highs with the development of mini-basins most likely structurally controlled.The ichnological analysis allowed to recognise ichnotaxa and intergradation cases between ichnospecies previously unknown for the unit, adding to the most diverse record of Dictyodora and Nereites in central-western Gondwana. Chondrites intricatus, Chondrites targionii, Chondrites?, Dictyodora zimmermanni, and specimens resembling Dictyodora liebeana are recorded for the first time. Nereites missouriensis is documented in intergradation with Nereites jacksoni, whereas Dictyodora scotica is recognised in intergradation with Dictyodora atuelica and Dictyodora tenuis. A decrease in ichnodiversity throughout the section could be related to variation in environmental parameters between the lower and upper sections. The ichnofacies assignment is discussed in terms of ethological categories and ichnodiversity. Some of the defined ichnoassemblages are assignable to a non-standard record of the Nereites Ichnofacies, and one in particular to the Nereites Ichnosubfacies, while another shows some characteristics coincident with the Zoophycos Ichnofacies. A transitional case between ichnofacies for the ichnological content of the unit as a whole, as previously reported in other units, cannot be disregarded.

First discovery of Mississippian trace fossils in the Świebodzice Unit from the Witoszów region (SW Poland)

Abundant and moderately diverse trace fossil assemblage have been discovered for the first time in mudstones of the Pogorzala Formation from the Witoszow region, SW Poland. Fifteen ichnospecies including fourteen ichnogenera are described. The ichnofauna is dominated by Dictyodora liebeana and contains numerous Palaeophycus tubularis , rarer Archaeonassa fossulata , Archaeonassa isp., Chondrites cf. intricatus , Curvolithus simplex , Diplopodichnus biformis , Lockeia isp., ? Lophoctenium isp., Nereites isp., Phycosiphon isp., Protovirgularia isp., ? Psammichnites isp., Taenidium isp. and one ichnospecies of fish swimming trails, Undichna cf. britannica. Some other structures (wave ripples influenced by microbial mats and zigzag structures) also occur. The trace fossil assemblages differ in various exposures, but three of them are similar and display the Dictyodora liebeana ichnoassemblage. It is represented mostly by the ethological categories fodinichnia and repichnia, with fewer pascichnia, domichnia and cubichnia. This new data from the Świebodzice Unit sheds light on the palaeontology, age and paleoenvironment of the Pogorzala Formation. The occurrence of D. liebeana and U . cf. britannica indicates the Mississippian age of most mudstones studied, formerly considered Upper Devonian. The trace fossil assemblage belongs to the non-standard Nereites ichnofacies, without graphoglyptids. The lithological features of mudstones, trace fossil assemblage and poverty of macrofauna, testify to their deposition in a deeper sedimentation zone below storm wave base, most likely in dysaerobic, pro-delta conditions. This study suggests that rocks containing D. liebeana may form a correlative horizon in the Świebodzice Unit.

Representations of Fine Digit Movements in Posterior and Anterior Parietal Cortex Revealed Using Long-Train Intracortical Microstimulation in Macaque Monkeys.

The current investigation in macaque monkeys utilized long-train intracortical microstimulation to determine the extent of cortex from which movements could be evoked. Not only were movements evoked from motor areas (PMC and M1), but they were also evoked from posterior parietal (5, 7a, 7b) and anterior parietal areas (3b, 1, 2). Large representations of digit movements involving only the index finger (D2) and thumb (D1), were elicited from areas 1, 2, 7b, and M1. Other movements evoked from these regions were similar to ethologically relevant movements that have been described in other primates. These include combined forelimb and mouth movements and full hand grasps. However, many other movements were much more complex and could not be categorized into any of the previously described ethological categories. Movements involving specific digits, which mimic precision grips, are unique to macaques and have not been described in New World or prosimian primates. We propose that these multiple and expanded motor representations of the digits co-evolved with the emergence of the opposable thumb and alterations in grip type in some anthropoid lineages.

An updated classification of animal behaviour preserved in substrates

During the last few decades, many new ethological categories for trace fossils have been proposed in addition to the original five given by Seilacher. In this article, we review these new groups and present a version of the scheme of fossil animal behaviour originally published by Bromley updated with regard to modern ethological concepts, especially those of Tinbergen. Because some behaviours are more common in certain environments than others, they are useful in palaeoecological reconstructions, forming the original basis of the ichnofacies concept. To simplify, we summarise some ethological categories as previously done by others. However, the tracemaker’s behaviour in some cases is so distinctive that subcategories should be employed, especially in ecological interpretations of certain environments where a special behaviour may be dominant.

Lithofacies and ichnology of the Late Maastrichtian–Danian Nsukka Formation in the Okigwe area, Anambra Basin, Southeastern Nigeria

Sedimentological and ichnological studies of the Late Maastrichtian to Danian Nsukka Formation in the Okigwe area of the Anambra Basin, Southeastern Nigeria were carried out to ascertain the lithofacies and to reconstruct the depositional environment. The lithofacies include concretionary black shale (F1), heterolithic facies (F2), bioturbated mudstone (F3), bioturbated sandstone (F4), ripple-bedded sandstone (F5), cross-bedded sandstone (F6), parallel-bedded sandstone (F7), bioturbated black shale (F8), and bioturbated shelly sandstone (F9). Some of the beds are significantly bioturbated with bioturbation index (BI) ranging from 3 to 5. Five lithofacies associations were distinguished and interpreted as follows: lithofacies association I represents offshore to lower shoreface transition sediments; lithofacies association II is middle to lower shoreface; lithofacies III comprises upper shoreface to foreshore and lagoon/bay sediments; lithofacies association IV is of upper shoreface origin; and lithofacies association V is proximal offshore. The shallow marine setting was dominated by currents, waves and occasional storm. The trace fossil assemblage comprises Ophiomorpha nodosa and Skolithos linearis representing the Skolithos ichnofacies and Thalassinoides suevicus, Teichichnus rectus, Paleophycus herberti and Planolites montanus representing the Cruziana ichnofacies. The six trace fossils described in this study are equally distributed into two ethological categories, domichnia (dwelling burrows) and fodinichnia (feeding burrows). The distribution of the two ethological categories in the sediments within the shallow marine environment was controlled by the energy of the environment, amount of organic detritus, degree of oxygenation and salinity.

"Shark is the man!": ethnoknowledge of Brazil's South Bahia fishermen regarding shark behaviors.

BackgroundFishermen’s knowledge is a source of indispensable information in decision-making processes related to efforts to stimulate the management and conservation of fishing resources, especially in developing countries. This study analyzed the knowledge of fishermen from three municipal areas of Bahia in northeast Brazil regarding the behavior repertoire of sharks and the possible influence that these perceptions may have on the inclination to preserve these animals. This is a pioneering study on the ethnobiological aspects of elasmobranchs in Brazil.MethodsOpen, semi-structured interviews with shark fishing specialists were conducted between September 2011 and October 2012. The interviews addressed the fishermen’s profile, fishing techniques and knowledge about sharks, focusing on the behaviours exhibited by sharks. The data were analysed with quantitative approach and conducted with the use of descriptive statistical techniques.ResultsSixty-five fishermen were interviewed. They descend from the rafting subculture of Brazil’s northeast, which has historically been disregarded by public policies addressing the management and conservation of fishing resources. The fishing fleet involved in shark fishing includes rafts, fishing boats and lobster boats equipped with fishing lines, gillnets, longlines and “esperas”. The informers classified sharks’ behaviour repertoire into 19 ethological categories, related especially to feeding, reproduction, and social and migratory behaviours. Because they identify sharks as predators, the detailed recognition of the behaviours exhibited is crucial both for an efficient catch and to avoid accidents. Therefore, this knowledge is doubly adaptive as it contributes to safer, more lucrative fishing. A feeling of respect for sharks predominates, since informers recognize the ecological role of these animals in marine ecosystems, attributing them the status of leader (or “the man”) in the sea.ConclusionsThis work demonstrates the complexity and robustness of artisanal fishermen’s ichthyological knowledge of sharks. Therefore, we suggest that such knowledge should be considered to develop public policies for the control of the fishing activity, as well as to develop and consolidate the National Action Plan for the Conservation of Shark and Ray Species (PAN - Tubarões e Raias).

Cambrian trace fossils of the Cruziana ichnofacies from the Bikaner-Nagaur Basin, north western Indian Craton

The Marwar Supergroup of the Bikaner-Nagaur Basin is composed of sediments deposited from the late Neoproterozoic (Ediacaran) to Upper Cambrian. The Nagaur Sandstone Formation of the Nagaur Group (uppermost division of the Marwar Supergroup) preserves trace fossils significant for establishing Early Cambrian biostratigraphic zones and depositional facies. Fifteen ichnospecies (and eight ichnogenera) identified in the Nagaur Sandstone Formation include “Treptichnus” pedum, Cruziana cf. tenella, Cruziana isp., Diplichnites ispp. A, B, and C, Gyrophyllites isp., Lockeia isp., Merostomichnites isp., Monomorphichnus gregarius isp. nov., Monomorphichnus isp., Planolites isp., Psammichnites isp., Rusophycus bikanerus isp. nov., Rusophycus cf. carbonarius, Rusophycus isp. and radial trace fossils.These trace fossils belong to ethological categories pascichnia, repichnia, cubichnia, and fodinichnia and represent arthropod and worm-like burrowing biota. The assemblage and a regional comparison with contemporaneous trace fossils in the eastern Gondwanan realm suggest that the sequence in the study area belongs to the Cruziana tenella Ichnozone and to Stage 2 (upper part of Terreneuvian), however the Middle Cambrian is not excluded. The trace fossil assemblage belongs to the archetypal Cruziana ichnofacies. Cross bedded sandstone, mud cracks and rainprints in the ichniferous strata of the Nagaur Sandstone Formation indicate deposition in an intertidal sand flat with channels that was exposed episodically.

“Peixe sabido, que enxerga de longe”: Conhecimento ictiológico tradicional na Chapada Diamantina, Bahia

“Smart fi sh that can see at a distance”: Traditional ichthyological knowledge in the Chapada Diamantina region, Bahia. This paper examines the traditional ichthyological knowledge of a community of fi shermen that live in the Marimbus-Iraquara environmental protection area (Bahia, Brazil). Data were collected using open and semi-structured interviews and fi eld observation. Also, zoological materials were collected. Knowledge about the behavior of 21 fi sh species is reported. The ethological phenomena perceived by the fi shermen were divided into 17 ethological categories related to reproduction, fl ight behavior, predation, social behavior, or response to artifi cial stimuli. The results of the study indicate the existence of a broad local ecological knowledge about species and ecosystems, particularly in relation to fi sh species.

Between a rock and a hard place: arthropod trackways and ichnotaxonomy

Several challenges exist in ichnotaxonomy: overcoming the perceived distinction between invertebrate and vertebrate ichnotaxonomy, standardizing terminology, rationalizing the plethora of ichnotaxa already in existence, and developing principles for diagnosing new ichnotaxa. Ichnotaxa should be based on morphology, and this morphology incorporates three key components; the behaviour expressed, the producer, and the substrate. Invertebrate and vertebrate ichnotaxa can both be accommodated within this framework, but they differ in the relative contributions of these components. The key to justifying the synonymy of existing ichnotaxa is the recognition of intergrading specimens. However, this is only the case for minor morphological variants (i.e. those representing minor differences in behaviour, such as gait parameters or stance; or minor differences in preservation, such as undertrack fallout or slight differences in substrate conditions). Intergrading specimens should not be used to justify synonymy between major morphological variants (i.e. those representing major behavioural differences, defined herein as ethological categories; or major differences in preservation, such as formation in soup, soft and firmgrounds), and such specimens should be denoted as hybrids (e.g. Cruziana×Rusophycus). New ichnotaxa should ideally be based on observations of large samples of material, so that recurrence is demonstrable, and morphological continuums, or subset relationships, representing minor morphological variation, are identified. Ichnotaxa may only be erected on the basis of limited material if they truly represent a unique morphology. These principles have been developed with arthropod trackways in mind, but it is hoped that they will be of more general utility.

Trace fossil distribution in lacustrine deltas: examples from the Triassic rift lakes of the Ischigualasto-Villa Unión basin, Argentina

Abstract This paper reports six trace fossil assemblages from lacustrine deltas of the Triassic Ischigualasto-Villa Unión rift basin, northwest Argentina. They were recognized in three correlated stratigraphic sections separated by about 100 km, and come from river- and wave-influenced deltas developed in low- and high-accommodation lacustrine basins. Trace fossil assemblages correspond to delta front (six), delta plain (two) and marginal lacustrine (one) facies associations. Each trace fossil assemblage is described, together with a detailed lithofacies characterization of the trace fossil-bearing interval. They are analysed in conjunction with previously described ichnological assemblages from partially correlative sections of the same basin. Delta front facies contains a high-diversity assemblage (22 ichnotaxa), including Cochlichnus (a ubiquitous form), Gordia, Helminthoidichnites, Helminthopsis, Didymaulichnus, Diplichnites, Stiaria, Cruziana, Bifurculapes, Protichnites, Diplopodichnus, Archaeonassa, Palaeophycus, Treptichnus, Rusophycus, Avolatichnium , ‘rhomboidal traces’, ‘fusiform structures’ and ‘millimetre burrows’. Trace fossil assemblages from delta plain facies are much less diverse (seven ichnotaxa), but display representatives of a greater variety of ethological categories, including Rhynchosauroides, Skolithos, Palaeophycus , ‘horseshoeshaped structures’, escape trace and drab-haloed root traces. Marginal lacustrine deposits of a river-dominated delta yielded a monospecific assemblage consisting of Cochlichnus anguineus . Comparison of trace fossil assemblages in wave- and river-dominated lacustrine deltas from the basin (mainly those of the delta front facies) revealed important differences in ichnodiversity that can be useful in the discrimination between these lacustrine delta types. Lacustrine delta deposits contain trace fossils that can be ascribed to three different ichnofacies: a high-diversity occurrence of the Mermia ichnofacies in subaqueous delta front sediments, a low-diversity occurrence of Mermia ichnofacies in subaqueous marginal lacustrine facies, the Skolithos ichnofacies in high-energy upper delta front/lower delta plain facies, and the Scoyenia ichnofacies in intermittently exposed upper delta plain facies. The analysed trace fossil assemblages from delta front and marginal lacustrine settings suggest environmental gradients within the Mermia ichnofacies.

Ethoexperimental analysis of the impact of chlordiazepoxide (CDP) on social interactions in three strains of mice

Categories of male C57BL/10, BALB/c and Swiss mice were injected s.c. with saline or 2.5, 5 or 10 mg/kg of CDP in saline 15 min prior to encounters with peripherally anosmic Swiss male ‘standard opponents’. The 10-min encounters were videotaped and subsequently analysed using a microprocessor for the times allocated to 11 broad ethological categories of behaviour. The animal's genotype had a profound effect on its response to CDP, effects being evident on attack, threat, avoidance-flee, defensive-submissive behaviour, social investigation, non-social investigation, digging and exploration-from-a-distance. Only body care and immobility showed no clear strain effect. A dose-effect of CDP was only evident on defense-submission - indeed the drug progressively increased the incidence of this behaviour in all strains.

Facial expressions of emotions and ethological behavioral categories.

The purpose of this study was to measure the capacity of human subjects to match facial expressions of emotions and behavioral categories that represented the motivational states they are supposed to illustrate. 100 university students were shown facial stimuli they had to classify using ethological behavioral categories. The results showed that accuracy of judgment was over-all lower than what was usually found when fundamental emotional categories were used. The data also indicated that the relation between emotional expressions and behavioral tendencies was more complex than expected.

Ethological categories of behaviour and some consequences of their conflation

The main purpose of this paper is to establish a bridgehead between contemporary ethology and some recent work in the philosophy of mind. Ethologists categorize behaviour according to its form, its function and its causation, but have not always been aware of the conceptual problems arising from the employment of several different conceptual schemes in one science. Philosophers of mind have recently discussed in detail the difference between thinking of human behaviour as action and thinking of it as movement, and I argue that this distinction is in some ways analogous to the distinction between behaviour categorized by function and by form. Wherever more than one conceptual scheme is employed in a science there is a pressure to run together concepts taken from the different schemes, and I show that such conceptual confusion in ethology can lead to obscurity, misrepresentation of experimental results, and the construction of unfruitful theories.

The Behavior of Cats (Felis Catus L.) With Lesions in the Caudal Midbrain Region

1. An ablation study of the caudal midbrain region in cats is reported. Two lesion groups were prepared by stereotaxic surgery. In one lesion group, the group, most of the tegmentum and the tectum were destroyed at an intercollicular level. In the other lesion group, the group, an area ventral and lateral to the T lesion was destroyed so that the medial lemniscus, pons, and adjacent tegmentum were involved. The two lesions overlapped in the ventral tegmentum. 2. The behavioral changes that were found are summarized in Table II. The cats with the T lesion (Figure 5) persisted in performing one of three prey behaviors: 1. approaching prey, 2. carrying prey, and 3. fishing or mousing. These three behaviors are illustrated in Figure 2. 3. Since the cats with the T lesion performed these parts of prey behavior all the time, it follows that other behavior that is sometimes seen in the laboratory never appeared: these cats never searched or scratched before or after micturition or defecation; they never ingested food in the normal manner (all the food that they ingested was incidentally swallowed during prey-carrying behavior) ; they never groomed; they never exhibited other components of prey behavior. 4. In the other lesion group (the VL group, Figure 6) there were changes in both prey and grooming behavior. In addition to these prey and grooming changes that were common to all members of this group, some members possessed other abnormalities: overeating and obesity, and a loss of responses to a dangerous situation. a. The grooming acts that are seen in normal cats are briefly described. b. The changes in grooming behavior consisted of the appearance of certain of the grooming movements to light tactual stimulation of the body surface: biting, scratching, and licking were elicited by light tactual stimuli and occurred without any of the orienting movements which are normally associated with these behaviors. These same cats groomed themselves excessively. c. In addition to the grooming changes, the cats with the VL lesion killed and ate rats, mice, chicks, and frogs in a normal manner. The other lesion group would not kill or eat prey, nor would cats without lesions that were currently living in the laboratory. d. Some of the modified behaviors reverted to normal after nine months or more. 5. A neurological examination revealed general hyporeflexic conditions; the two lesion groups did not differ systematically on this examination. 6. The cats with the largest lesions were mute, and performed poorly on learning tasks. 7. The thyroid glands of both lesion groups were hyperplastic. 8. The discussion points out that these results are consistent with previous work on the caudal midbrain region and that this region of the brain is therefore significantly implicated as important for instinctive behaviors. 9. The importance of the caudal midbrain region may be due mostly to its connections with other parts of the central nervous system. Thus concepts which are supplementary to the concept of centers are briefly discussed. 10. The change in grooming may be viewed as a simple quantitative increase in behavior and is therefore classified as a super-positive change. The increased sensitivity of partly denervated central nervous system structures that receive input from the skin may be involved in the production of this grooming modification. 11. Because the lesions are rather large and involve many structures, no specific neuroanatomical explanation is possible at the present time. 12. Some fiber systems may be eliminated as critically involved because destruction of these fiber systems at more rostral levels has not produced any behavioral changes. Some of the fiber systems not eliminated interconnect the midbrain with the hypothalamus and subthalamus, and interconnect the superior colliculus with more ventral and caudal parts of the brain stem. The relationships between the midbrain and hypothalamus are emphasized. 13. Some of the changes in behavior that were found here may be produced separately by smaller lesions. 14. The modified grooming and prey bites are compared. Each modified bite was produced by a different lesion. The modifications are similar: both bites have reflex-like properties and may be elicited without the orienting components that normally occur. This dissociation between fixed action patterns and appetitive behavior, together with the dissociation between major instinctive systems (grooming and prey), support the ethological categories of analysis and suggest a high degree of specificity in the structural bases of the behavior involved.