Ethnographic Content Analysis Research Articles

The History of Marketing an Idea: The Example of Baron Pierre de Coubertin as a Social Marketer

This article seeks to identify and evaluate how the ideas of the founder of the Olympic movement, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, may reflect the promotion of the set of values encapsulated in the ideology of Olympism as a complex social marketing product, ultimately aiming at micro, group and macro social changes. To this end, his writings, correspondence and speeches were analysed, using the method of Ethnographic Content Analysis (ECA), a variation of the qualitative content analysis. The article concludes that Coubertin may be considered as a social marketer of his times and it may also be claimed that Olympism has been treated as a social marketing product ever since its emergence.

Smart on crime: The new language for prisoner release

This exploratory study of news media reports examines language of incarceration shifts from ‘tough on crime’ to ‘smart on crime’ as a feature of broader, contextual meanings about: (1) the costs and benefits of prison and incarceration; (2) the moral meanings and ‘practical reasoning’ associated with imprisonment; (3) the language of deviance and respectability. This work is linked to two long-term projects. One is the ‘discourse of fear’, the pervasive communication, symbolic awareness, and expectation that danger and risk are a central feature of everyday life. The other is ‘the language of justice’, or a discourse analysis of justice speech and the construction of social control. Our aim in this project is to explore the changing discourse of incarceration. News reports were selected and analyzed using ethnographic content analysis and ‘tracking discourse’, or following certain issues, words, themes, and frames over a period of time, across different issues, and across different news media. We find that ‘smart on crime’ did promote more lenient sentences for less demonized offenders, but the message was more receptive to news organizations if delivered by claims makers associated with criminal justice organizations. Some implications for claims making and the social construction of reality are discussed.

The Voices of Accepting and Supportive Parents of Gay Sons

In order to uncover personal attributes and systemic influences involved in being accepting and supportive of their sons' gay identities, 14 members of a chapter of Parents and Friends of Lesbians and Gays were invited to describe their coming out processes as parents of gay sons. A qualitative approach examined parental definitions of acceptance, the parents' relationships with their sons, the parents' renditions of their coming out processes, and ecosystemic influences on the parents' coming out processes. Ethnographic content analysis suggested that the relevant attributes of parental personalities and their proximal environments were similar in this sample including emotional investment in the people involved, openness to new realities, and the capacity to find and use resources.

Talking It Over With the Gals: An Analysis of Editorials by Phyllis Stern

Editorials written by a journal editor proved a glimpse of that individual's philosophy and opinions about topical events. The purpose of the present project was to analyze the editorials of Phyllis Noerager Stern during the years that she served as editor-in-chief of Health Care for Women International (1983–2001). Using ethnographic content analysis, 65 editorials were examined to ascertain: (1) what event triggered the editorial; (2) what aim or objective could be identified; and (3) what rhetorical devices the editor employed. Personal narratives and editorials about the abuse/exploitation of women made up the largest categories. Stern's grounded theory orientation, fascination with other cultures, and zest for life were evident throughout the corpus of editorials.

Political Rap: The Music of Oppositional Resistance

Music is a medium of popular culture wherein group identities are explored and linked to larger social forces. Previous research portrays political rap music as an oppositional African-American cultural form that critiques and encourages resistance to cultural and socio-economic domination. Political rap lyrics haue expressed themes associated with a re-conceptualized Black family as a racial community, lost economic opportunities, educational bias, health care inequality, criminal justice discrimination, police brutality, mass media misrepresentations, and the existence of a racial genocide conspiracy. Using ethnographic content analysis, we empirically detail the nature and frequency of the expression of oppositional resistance and related themes in a representative selection of political rap music lyrics from the twenty albums released by the six most prominent political rap artistes between the years of 1988-1992.

Perspectives and practice: the satisfaction construct

Patient satisfaction is measured at all levels of the Australian health system. However, these activities are not guided by formal national policy, nor is there a uniform approach to measuring patient satisfaction. While the reasons for exploring patient satisfaction are widely supported and can be easily documented, the construct of patient satisfaction itself remains ambiguous. Although health practitioners frequently refer to patient satisfaction when evaluating health care services; it is not clear if practitioners share a clear perspective or understanding about the meaning of the construct. Exploring the practitioner’s own understanding of what is meant by patient satisfaction is a critical first step before any comparative analysis between the practitioners’ understanding, the dimensionality of measurement tools, and the beliefs of the consumer can be conducted. This paper explores Australian health practitioners’ understanding of patient satisfaction. A convenience sample of 29 staff representing 17 hospitals from across Australian States and Territories consented to participate in a series of focus groups. Systematic ethnographic summary and content analysis revealed 15 themes which health practitioners considered important in making a patient’s hospital stay satisfactory. However, health practitioners, even those involved with measuring patient satisfaction, struggled to either define patient satisfaction or clarify what the phenomenon meant empirically. While hospitals commonly report the outcomes of evaluating patient satisfaction, this research suggests that the value of such reports in everyday practice may be limited by confusion and ambiguity.

Australian Letters to the Editor on Tobacco: Triggers, Rhetoric, and Claims of Legitimate Voice

News coverage of tobacco issues influences both individual behavior change and policy progression. Thus, media advocacy is increasingly recognized as important for promoting public health. Letters to the editor (LTE) are a basic form of media advocacy, serving to demonstrate community sentiment on a given issue. Such letters are yet to receive systematic analytic consideration. The authors conducted an ethnographic content analysis of LTE on tobacco issues from a sample of 11 Australian daily newspapers over a 3-year period (2001 to 2003, N=361). They argue that letters are artifacts of active engagement in a public debate and note that various stakeholders adopt similar strategies to pursue their objectives. They illustrate how identifying personal and collective identities is crucial in the assertion of legitimacy of voice in LTEs. Better understanding is needed of both the particular issues that spark public engagement, and the salient rhetoric employed by advocates of disparate positions.

Communicating Threat: The Canadian State and Terrorism

Canada's position vis-à-vis September 11 differs substantially from the United States' in both circumstance and rhetoric. Although Canada was not the target of the terrorist attack, the United States is Canada's closest neighbor. In the words of the Prime Minister in the weeks following September 11, the United States is “more like family than friends.” Given this, how has the terrorist threat been interpreted for and communicated to the public by the Canadian state? Through ethnographic content analyses of the documents (speeches and press releases) found on the Prime Minister's Office (PMO) Web site, we consider the communications by the Canadian state with respect to the events of September 11. We analyze this information within the overarching frameworks of risk and trust. In terms of risk, we examine the Prime Minister's communications and the framing of this communication as it relates to the discourse of probable harm and/or benefit. As for trust, we consider the emphasis on reputation and how this affects the information provided and its delivery. These risk/trust underpinnings speak to the Canadian state's construction of security, security threats, and the construction of the Canadian state more generally.

Peering Beneath the Veil: An Ethnographic Content Analysis of Islam as Portrayed on The 700 Club Following the September 11th Attacks

The 700 Club television program, which broadcasts information, entertainment, and evangelism, holds an important place in the lives of many of America's Evangelical Christians. That role took on added meaning given the fear, confusion, and search for answers that emerged following the September 11th attacks. Through a qualitative media analysis, this study found that program host Pat Robertson interpreted, framed, and presented the events and issues surrounding the attack to support a particular evangelical worldview. Ultimately, Robertson and his guests used the events to justify the position that Islam itself represents a threat to America and Christianity.

Measuring customer perceived online service quality

The purpose of this paper is to set forth a reliable and valid means of measuring online service quality based on a broad conceptual framework which integrates theory and conceptualization in customer service quality, information systems quality, and product portfolio management, into online service quality. An ethnographic content analysis of 848 customer reviews of online banking services was employed to identify salient online service quality dimensions. The most frequently cited online service quality attributes, along with literature review and personal interview results, were utilized to develop the survey questionnaire. Subsequent to the pre‐test, a Web‐based survey was undertaken to verify and test the online service quality model. A confirmatory factor analysis produced six key online service quality dimensions: reliability, responsiveness, competence, ease of use, security, and product portfolio. This paper includes a discussion of the managerial and theoretical implications of this online service quality model.

Student perceptions of effective small group teaching.

The goal of this study was to assess student perceptions of effective small group teaching during preclinical training in a medical school that promotes an integrated, systems-based undergraduate curriculum. In particular, students were asked to comment on small group goals, effective tutor behaviours, pedagogical materials and methods of evaluation. Six focus groups were held with 46 Year 1 and 2 medical students to assess their perceptions of effective small group teaching in the 'Basis of Medicine' component of the undergraduate curriculum. Ethnographic content analysis guided the interpretation of the focus group data. Students identified tutor characteristics, a non-threatening group atmosphere, clinical relevance and integration, and pedagogical materials that encourage independent thinking and problem solving as the most important characteristics of effective small groups. Tutor characteristics included personal attributes and the ability to promote group interaction and problem solving. Small group teaching goals providing included opportunities to ask questions, to work as a team, and to learn to problem solve. This study highlighted the benefits of soliciting student impressions of effective small group teaching. The students' emphasis on group atmosphere and facilitation skills underscored the value of the tutor as a 'guide' to student learning. Similarly, their comments on effective cases emphasised the importance of clinical relevance, critical thinking and the integration of basic and clinical sciences. This study also suggested future avenues for research, such as a comparison of student and teacher perceptions of small group teaching as well as an analysis of perceptions of effective small group learning across the educational continuum, including undergraduate, postgraduate and continuing professional education.

Butches, Bullies and Buffoons: Images of Physical Education Teachers in the Movies

The purpose of this study was to examine the cinematic images of physical educators during the past decade. This study is approached from two perspectives: (a) framing and (b) social cognition. Framing, an approach to media studies most often reserved for critical analysis of news, provides useful generalities for a formative study of movie images, which directs explicit attention toward the construction and use of media frames. Contemporary social cognition theory blends social learning theory with an understanding of the power of media images. Media observers (i.e. movie viewers) can acquire symbolic representations of behavior through media images and these images are powerful and informative enough to inform subsequent behavior. Using the Internet Movie Database (IMDB), each researcher compiled a list of movies. After an initial list from the IMDB was compiled, researchers added films that they knew, from personal knowledge, included physical education teachers. A final list of 18 movies was distributed to each of the four coders, with a stipulation that the coding take place during a specified time period of no more than three months. Each researcher observed the videotapes independently while noting the dialogue and camera shots of all scenes involving physical educators for emerging frames of reference regarding physical education teachers. Ethnographic content analysis, a media studies variation of the constant comparative method, aided in the identification of frames (categories and themes) that emerged from the data. The researchers independently made notes concerning the video observations and then later developed a system of classification by comparing notes and discovering regularities within the data. The constant comparative method was used to assist in the assessment and grouping of framing approaches. Agreement between researchers had to be 100% for a frame to be included in research findings. It was agreed that frames had to be constructed by both verbal and visual indicators in the films, and it had to be strongly associated with at least three films. Although nuances in setting, plot and the personalities of characters might arguably make frames in each film studied 'unique', several frames emerged as characteristic of depictions of physical educators: (a) there is no distinction between physical educators and coaches, (b) physical educators are incompetent teachers, (c) physical educators are drill sergeants and are the proverbial 'bully from hell' who enjoys seeing a student humiliated, and (d) characteristics of physical educators are gendered: women are often depicted as 'butch' or lesbian; men, as buffoons devoid of 'masculine' leadership qualities. An understanding of these frames is important because it provides clues about social cognition and behavior in regard to issues of physical education--from the classroom to the school board meeting, from decisions made about participation in physical education class to decisions made about the priority of physical education in the school setting.

Patients' interpretation of the symptoms of myocardial infarction: implications for cardiac rehabilitation.

Research has shown that patients' models of illness are likely to be different from those of health professionals and that these beliefs may be more important than medical factors in directing the recovery process. Beliefs about myocardial infarction may influence coping with the illness, expectations for recovery, patients' reactions to subsequent cardiac events, morbidity and compliance rates and attendance at rehabilitation courses. This qualitative study explores patients' interpretation of the symptoms of myocardial infarction and their personal theories about the illness. Data collection was undertaken in a coronary care unit, using semi-structured interviews with 50 patients. Ethnographic content analysis was used to develop an insightful description of commonalties in the data. Major categories from the data included: providing a historical context, the metaphor of a heart attack, labelling of symptoms and making sense of the illness experience. Interventions to increase participation in rehabilitation programmes need to take into consideration patients' theories about their illness.

Virtually Speaking: Girls' Self-Disclosure on the WWW

Recent literature has pointed to a shortage of places for adolescent girls to publicly yet safely engage in self-narrative. This study considered the WWW as one auspicious location for girls to do so. I used ethnographic content analysis to examine personal World Wide Web (WWW) home pages of ten girls between the ages of 14 and 17. These girls appeared to use their home pages as a forum for self-disclosure, especially self-clarification and self-expression. I address the ramifications of considering girls' home pages as archives for self-disclosure, as well as directions for future research.

The First Time/Das Erstes Mal

Cross-national studies link mass media presentation of sexuality to different patterns of adolescent sexual socialization and conduct but have not analyzed media texts in detail. Using ethnographic content analysis, the author evaluates 76 stories about virginity loss—a key sexual transition—from one German and one U.S. teen magazine. Consistent with culture-specific approaches to teen sexuality, editors at both publications made similar recommendations for virginity loss, but German editors portrayed suggested practices as more appealing and feasible.

Re‐thinking instructional immediacy for web courses: A social cognitive exploration

The growth of the World‐Wide Web of as a medium of instruction in higher education rekindles an old debate about the effectiveness of instructional technology. The present limitations of the Internet medium restrict the teacher immediacy of Web courses and possibly have a negative impact on both affective and cognitive learning. Web courses also appear to be a deficient means to form close relationships between students, which was termed student immediacy. But Web courses also have the potential to be more immediate than conventional classroom instruction by introducing a new “agency”; into the learning environment, the computer. Learner interactions with computers potentially convey a sense of personal tutorship or computer immediacy that augment immediacy in comparison to the limited large group interaction prevalent in conventional lecture sections. Social cognitive theory was applied to develop a unified construct of instructional immediacy that encompassed teacher, student and computer agency. Within this theory, immediacy behaviors provide social and status incentives that motivate learning. An exploratory qualitative ethnographic content analysis of three Web courses identified potential indicators of immediacy in Web classrooms and framed recommendations about future research on instructional immediacy and Web course design.

Women's perceptions of outcomes of prenatal case management.

Comprehensive case management is a multidisciplinary, community-based service often available to Medicaid-eligible women. The purpose of the study was to identify the variety of maternal outcomes, other than birth outcomes, attributable to comprehensive prenatal case management. This qualitative study used a social ecological approach. Twenty-four women were interviewed about the outcomes they experienced as a result of comprehensive prenatal case management. Ethnographic content analysis was used for data reduction. The participants' mean age was 25.4 (SD = 8.4) years, with an average parity of 1.9 (SD = 1.1). Fifteen participants (68%) had a 12th grade education or less. Ethnic minorities were included in the sample. Eleven participants (47%) worked at least part-time, although 23 (98%) were receiving Medicaid and 21 (88%) were receiving the Women, Infants, and Children's (WIC) supplementary nutrition program. The women attributed improvements of various types to the actions of the case manager, specifically in the areas of emotional well-being, learning, lifestyle behaviors, financial situation, services utilization, and maternal and infant physical health. Case management appeared to have immediate effects on the women, as well as intermediate effects, such as changes in lifestyle behaviors and services utilization. The women attributed those changes to having a healthy pregnancy.

The assessment of parenting in the child welfare practice

This study analyzed how parenting and factors considered as important determinants of parental care are assessed in the child welfare practice during the placement process, using ethnographic content analysis of case records. The assessment of parenting and the factors affecting it was unsystematic and unplanned with no consistency between cases. The documentary mentions concerning the quality of parent-child relationships were surprisingly rare. The descriptions concentrated more on parents' problems than problems in parenting and the qualities of the parent-child relationship. This study indicated that apart from the need for systematized assessment methods in Finnish child welfare practice there is also a need for definition of the concept of parenting and the dimensions of the parent-child relationship that are central in assessing parenting in cases of child maltreatment.

Perceptions of Children and Teenagers on Community Policing: Implications for Law Enforcement Leadership, Training, and Citizen Evaluations

The law enforcement community and the criminal justice system have embraced the emergence of the postbureaucratic era and its emphasis on more community responsibility. In particular, the organizational and philosophical strategy of community policing seeks to coproduce public safety and public order by integrating or partnering the local police department with its citizens. Although a plethora of research exists on the topic of citizen perceptions and satisfaction with community policing, an important sector of citizens has been overlooked and left out of this process—children and teenagers. This article uses focus group interviewing and an ethnographic-content analysis to examine the perceptions of inner-city children and teenagers in a neighborhood of Athens, Georgia, on law enforcement in general and community policing in particular. This research yields important implications for law enforcement leadership, training, and citizen evaluations of public programs.

A Typology of the Frivolous: Varying Meanings of Frivolity in Section 1983 Prisoner Civil Rights Litigation

In the last few years, the popular press, judges, state attorneys general, and legal scholars have raised concerns about the frivolus nature of lawsuits filed in federal court by inmates in state and local custodies under 42 U.S.C. Section 1983. An ethnographic content analysis of a random sample of 200 cases filed in 1994 in the U.S. District Court for the District of Arizona demonstrates that the label “frivolous” is used in different ways by various stakeholders in the civil justice system. A typology of differing conceptualizations of frivolous cases is explored, and the sociolegal and public policy implications of the findings are discussed.