Ethnic-racial Identity Exploration Research Articles

Overt and Subtle Discrimination and Psychological Well-Being: Examining the Mediating and Moderating Role of Ethnic-Racial Identity Among Emerging Adults

Ethnic-racial identity (ERI) has been reported as mediator and moderator of the relation between discrimination and psychological well-being. However, it remains unclear how different forms of discrimination (i.e., overt and subtle) predict well-being over time, and whether ERI exploration and commitment mediate or moderate this association. This preregistered study explored the associations of overt and subtle discrimination with well-being (i.e., depression, substance use, life satisfaction) in a sample of 323 ethnic-racial minoritized college students ( M age W1 = 18.03, 62.7% female) from longitudinal data collected in the US. Cross-lagged panel models across three waves indicated no associations of overt discrimination, but participants experiencing more subtle discrimination during their transition to college reported more depressive symptoms after four months. Ethnic-racial identity did not function as mediator or moderator. Findings indicate the need for a more nuanced understanding of the role of ERI during emerging adulthood.

Teachers' Implementation of the Identity Project Is Associated With Increases in U.S. High School Students' Ethnic-Racial Identity Exploration.

Ethnic-racial identity formation has significant consequences for positive youth development. Existing findings support the efficacy of the Identity Project, a school-based ethnic-racial identity intervention, when delivered by researchers; however, effectiveness of the program when delivered by teachers is unknown. This study examined changes in adolescents' (N = 180; 42.2% male, 50.6% female, 6.7% another gender identity; Mage = 14.11, SD = 0.33; 38.3% Latinx, 33.9% White, 15.0% Black, 9.4% Asian American, 3.3% another ethnoracial background) ethnic-racial identity exploration as a function of their teachers' implementation of the Identity Project. Findings indicated that ethnic-racial identity exploration significantly increased from pretest to posttest, and this did not vary based on familial ethnic-racial socialization, student-teacher ethnoracial match/mismatch, gender, immigrant status, or ethnoracial background. This study provides preliminary evidence that U.S. educators can be trained to efficaciously implement the Identity Project with high school students and, furthermore, that this approach to program dissemination may not only facilitate scale-up but also result in greater gains for adolescents relative to research-led implementations.

Constructed online experiences facilitate ethnic-racial identity development among Black and Latinx adolescents

Using latent profile analysis and a longitudinal design, we explored how Black and Latinx adolescents’ (N = 535; Mage = 14.47, SD = 1.99) construction of their race/ethnic and civic-related online experiences facilitated ethnic-racial identity (ERI) development over time. Profiles comprised five indicators: ethnic-racial identity exploration, making same-ethnic friends, same-ethnic group communication, other group orientation, and online civic engagement. We identified five profiles: Low Ingroup Connectors rarely made same-ethnic friends online. Moderate Connectors were average on all indicators. High Ingroup Connectors were high on seeking same-ethnic friends online. High Ingroup Engaged Connectors were highest on online ethnic-racial identity exploration, making same-ethnic friends, and civic engagement. Civically Engaged Connectors were high on online civic engagement and low on making same-ethnic friends online. Further, we found that High Ingroup Connectors had the most positive ERI outcomes one year later among Black and Latinx youth after controlling for earlier ERI and other covariates.

Ethnic/Racial Identity, Adolescent Sleep, and Somatic Health: Discrimination and Stress Responses as Mediating Mechanisms

PurposeThis study sought to examine whether the daily associations between ethnic/racial discrimination and stress responses served as mediators linking ethnic/racial identity (ERI), adolescent sleep health, and somatic symptoms. MethodsData were drawn from 279 adolescents of color (69% female; 24% African Americans; 31% Asian Americans; 41% Latinx; and 4% unknown ethnicity/race; Mage = 14.31 years, SD = 0.65). Adolescents first completed an online survey about ERI exploration and commitment; and then 14-day diaries on ethnic/racial discrimination and stress responses (i.e., rumination and problem-solving coping), and finally, a post-diary survey about sleep and somatic health over the past two weeks. This study adopts slope-as-mediator mediation modeling, a novel approach highlighting the role of daily-level experiences in developmental processes by examining the day-to-day association between two variables as an explanatory mechanism. ResultsThe daily associations between ethnic/racial discrimination and two stress responses significantly mediated the link between ERI exploration and adolescents' subsequent sleep and somatic health. For ERI commitment, only the mediating pathway of the association between ethnic/racial discrimination and problem-solving coping was significant. DiscussionDaily responses to ethnic/racial discrimination, both adaptively and maladaptively, could in part explain the association between ERI exploration and adolescent health. Active participation in cultural activities may increase adaptive responses to ethnic/racial discrimination; meanwhile, uncertainty about ERI may lead to maladaptive reactions such as rumination. For ERI commitment, only problem-solving coping with ethnic/racial discrimination mediated the links to health outcomes, an observation possibly explained by the benefits of holding a strong sense of commitment to ERI.

The role of autonomy granting and ethnic-racial socialization in Mexican-origin girls' ethnic-racial identity trajectories.

The current study examines the role of ethnic-racial socialization (ERS) and maternal autonomy granting in predicting ethnic-racial identity (ERI) exploration, resolution, and affirmation trajectories in a sample of Mexican-origin girls (N = 338) in early and middle adolescence at Wave 1. Latent growth curve analyses showed significant growth in ERI exploration, resolution, and affirmation over 3.5 years. ERS, autonomy granting, and their interaction were associated with ERI trajectories. Results also indicated significant differences between early and middle adolescents in the association between ERS, autonomy granting, and ERI exploration trajectories. Findings demonstrate the importance of concurrently examining contextual and developmental predictors of ERI formation. In addition, ERS may be particularly important for ERI development among early adolescents, whereas autonomy processes and development may play a more prominent role during middle adolescence. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Breathing the Air of Their Ancestors: The Influence of Ethnic-Racial Identity on School Connectedness for Native American Youths

In this Indigenous-grounded, transformative sequential explanatory study, the author examined the influence of ethnic-racial identity exploration on school connectedness in a sample of (n = 41) Native American youths attending a public school on a federally recognized Indian reservation. The students were enrolled in a Native American cultural immersion program. Participants completed a survey packet including a demographic form, an adapted cultural connectedness survey, and the MAC 5-A-Short Version six-item school connectedness subscale. While the results indicated that ethnic-racial identity exploration slightly impacted school connectedness, they were not deemed statistically significant. The author also captured youth participants' perspectives to develop a deeper understanding of how ethnic-racial identity exploration impacted school connectedness, identifying eight categories. These findings may help inform a broader development and application of a Native American way of knowing instructional model that contributes to strengthening school connectedness for Native American youths through ethnic-racial identity exploration.

The Role of Ethnic-Racial Identity and Self-Esteem in Intergroup Contact Attitudes.

Adolescents' ethnic-racial identity (ERI) exploration, resolution, and affirmation inform their approach and avoidance attitudes toward intergroup contact, but the potential mechanisms through which this occurs have been underexplored. Given the evidence that adolescents with higher ERI exploration, resolution, and affirmation also report higher self-esteem, and self-esteem is theorized to facilitate openness to intergroup contact, the current study explored the role of self-esteem as a mediator of the relation between adolescents' ERI and their intergroup contact attitudes. Participants were 4606 adolescents (Mage = 16.35, SD = 1.16; 37.5% White, 27.1% Black, 20.7% Latinx, 11.7% Asian American, 3% Native American) from the U.S. Southwest and Midwest. The three waves of data were collected between March 2017 and March 2018. Results from longitudinal multigroup path models indicated that across all ethnic-racial groups there were positive direct relations between Wave 1 (W1) ERI resolution and W2 self-esteem (7 months later). In turn, W2 self-esteem was positively related to W3 approach attitudes (12 months later) and negatively related to W3 avoidance attitudes. The relations between ERI resolution and both approach and avoidance attitudes were fully mediated by self-esteem across all ethnic-racial groups. Notably the baseline values (W1) of all mediation and outcome variables (W2, W3) were included, suggesting that ERI resolution at baseline predicted increases in self-esteem, which predicted subsequent increases in approach attitudes and decreases in avoidance attitudes. ERI exploration and affirmation were not significant predictors of later self-esteem or contact attitudes. These findings suggest that of the three dimensions of ERI examined, resolution is the primary driver of the increases in self-esteem that inform adolescents' attitudes towards interaction with ethnic-racial outgroup members.

Assessing Invariance of Universal Ethnic-Racial Identity Measures Among Black Adolescents in the United States.

Black immigrants and their children represent a significant and growing share of the U.S. Black population; however, their experiences of their multifaceted identities are often collapsed into the experiences of multigenerational Black youth. The current study investigates whether generalized ethnic-racial identity measures are equivalent for Black youth with an immigrant parent and Black youth with only U.S.-born parents. Participants were 767 Black adolescents (16.6% immigrant-origin; Mage = 16.28, SD = 1.12) attending diverse high schools in two regions of the U.S. Participants completed the affirmation, exploration, and resolution subscales of the Ethnic Identity Scale-Brief (EIS-B), along with the centrality and public regard subscales of the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity-Teen (MIBI-T). The results indicated that, whereas the EIS-B demonstrated scalar invariance, the MIBI-T demonstrated partial scalar invariance. Accounting for measurement error, immigrant-origin youth reported lower affirmation than multigenerational U.S.-origin youth. Across groups, ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution scores were positively associated with family ethnic socialization; ethnic-racial identity affirmation was positively associated with self-esteem; and ethnic-racial identity public regard was negatively associated with ethnic-racial discrimination, supporting convergent validity. Conversely, centrality was positively associated with discrimination among multigenerational U.S.-origin Black youth, but the relation was not significant among immigrant-origin Black youth. These results fill a methodological gap in the literature, providing researchers with empirical support for considering whether to pool immigrant-origin and multigenerational U.S.-origin Black youth in analyses regarding ethnic-racial identity.

The Role of Family Ethnic Socialization and Generational Status in White Adolescents’ Ethnic-Racial Identity Development

Family ethnic socialization (FES) is a critical component of youth ethnic-racial identity (ERI) development. However, little research has focused on FES experiences amongst White families. The current study applied a convergent mixed methods design to investigate how immigration generational status (i.e., number of U.S.-born parents and grandparents) was associated with FES within White American families and the extent to which that informed adolescents’ ERI development. Utilizing survey data for White adolescents’ ( N = 532) self-reported FES experiences and ERI exploration and resolution, quantitative path analyses testing for mediation indicated that, as adolescents reported more family members born in the U.S., their FES experiences were lower and, in turn, their ERI exploration and resolution were also lower. FES fully mediated the relation between generational status and their ERI exploration and resolution. A theoretical thematic analysis of focus group data from a subsample of participants offered insights into how White adolescents described their FES experiences, illustrating the integral role of parents and grandparents for learning about their ethnic heritage, school’s role in facilitating FES, and various methods of maintaining familial collective cultural memory. The current study offers preliminary insights into FES among White families and identifies new questions for exploration future research.

Ethnic-Racial Identity Developmental Trajectories Across the Transition to College.

There is limited longitudinal research examining multiple ethnic-racial identity (ERI) components from adolescence into young adulthood. The current study modeled Latino adolescents' ERI trajectories across the college transition (N = 206; Mage = 18.10 years, SD = 0.41; 65.0% female). Longitudinal data from a survey administered on five occasions across 3 years were analyzed using multilevel growth modeling. Prior to college, Latino heritage culture orientation was positively associated with ERI exploration and resolution. ERI exploration increased over time. ERI resolution was high with no average change; Latino heritage culture orientation predicted variability in resolution over time. Before college, male-identifying youth reported higher ERI public regard from teachers/professors compared to female-identifying youth. Public regard increased to a greater extent for female compared to male adolescents. The findings join evidence for lifespan and intersectional models of ERI development.

Psychological Well-Being and Substance Use During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Ethnic/Racial Identity, Discrimination, and Vigilance.

Emerging evidence indicates that the COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated mental health disparities among Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) through increased exposure to racism. Although ethnic/racial identity (ERI) and mental health were associated among BIPOC young adults pre-pandemic, it is unclear how these associations may differ in the exacerbated hostile racial environment of the pandemic. The current study examined the associations between ERI exploration and commitment within the context of ethnic/racial discrimination (ERD) and race-related vigilance with psychological well-being and substance use as explained by rumination. Data from a cross-sectional online survey of 450 AIAN, Asian, Black, and Latinx young adults (18-25years) collected in April 2020 included demographic variables, standardized measures of ERI, ERD, race-related vigilance, rumination brooding and reflection, substance use, and psychological well-being. Black respondents reported more exposure to ERD than AIAN and Asian young adults. ERI exploration and commitment were positively associated with well-being. ERI exploration, ERD, and rumination were associated with higher levels of substance use. An association between ERI exploration and more substance use and lower well-being was partially accounted for by higher levels of rumination. An association between ERI commitment and more substance use was fully accounted for by higher levels of rumination. Although ERI exploration and commitment were associated with better psychological well-being among BIPOC young adults, a significant association was found between ERI commitment and more substance use as explained by rumination. Public health efforts should cultivate culturally sensitive mental health services to decrease rumination and its negative association with substance use and well-being.

Ethnic-racial identity in Europe: Adapting the identity project intervention in five countries

ABSTRACT A global challenge for developmental psychology is to better understand how young people around the world make sense of their identities growing up in pluralistic societies. The study of ethnic-racial identity provides an important lens for this process. This paper describes how five European countries (Germany, Greece, Italy, Norway, and Sweden) adapted the Identity Project, an 8-week school-based intervention originally developed in the United States to promote adolescents’ ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution. Across the five countries, deep structure adaptations included revised or added content regarding key terminology used, a focus on migration and foreignness rather than ‘race,’ and discussions regarding national and regional identities, in addition to ethnic-racial identities, and how they may relate to one another. The process and content of adaptation we describe addresses two fundamental issues relevant to a globalized developmental psychology: 1) contributing to theoretical advances on key aspects of development by taking sociohistorical context seriously, and 2) moving between etic and emic perspectives to arrive at psychological constructs that can be appropriately studied across diverse cultural contexts.

Critical Action and Ethnic-Racial Identity: Tools of Racial Resistance at the College Transition.

This study examines the reciprocal relationship between critical action and ethnic–racial identity (ERI) exploration in Black college students using a longitudinal cross‐lagged model. Participants were Black students (N = 237; M age = 18.2; 74% female) from a longitudinal study of college transition. Analyses examined the temporal ordering and directionality of associations between critical action and ERI exploration over four time points from college entry through four years of college. Critical action positively predicted ERI exploration over each year of college, and ERI exploration positively predicted critical action in a reciprocal fashion over the same years. These findings underscore theoretical assertions that critical action and ERI are intertwined in Black youths' development and provide insight into how critical action and ERI overlap beyond adolescence.

A longitudinal pathway from ethnic-racial discrimination to sexual risk behaviors among Black women and Latinas: Ethnic-racial identity exploration as a protective factor

BackgroundBlack women and Latinas in their thirties continue to be at risk for HIV transmission via heterosexual intercourse. MethodsInformed by the Theory of Gender and Power, this study investigated a longitudinal path model linking experiences of ethnic-racial discrimination in late adolescence to sexual risk behaviors in adulthood among 492 Black women and Latinas. We also tested whether ethnic-racial identity exploration served as a resilience asset protecting women against the psychological impact of ethnic-racial discrimination. Survey data from female participants in the Harlem Longitudinal Development Study, which has followed a cohort of New York City Black and Latinx youth since 1990, were analyzed. Data for this analysis were collected at four time points when participants were on average 19, 24, 29, and 32 years of age. Structural equation modeling was used to examine a hypothesized pathway from earlier ethnic-racial discrimination to later sexual risk behaviors and the protective role of ethnic-racial identity exploration. ResultsResults confirmed that ethnic-racial discrimination in late adolescence was linked with sexual risk behaviors in the early thirties via increased levels of affective distress in emerging adulthood, experiences of victimization in young adulthood, and substance use in the early thirties among women low in ethnic-racial identity exploration. We also found that ethnic-racial identity served as a resilience asset, as the association between discrimination in late adolescence and affective distress in emerging adulthood was not significant among women with higher levels of ethnic-racial identity exploration. ConclusionsThe results provide important preliminary evidence that ethnic-racial identity exploration may serve as a resilience asset among Black women and Latinas confronting racial discrimination. Further, we suggest that ethnic-racial identity exploration may constitute an important facet of critical consciousness.

Applying stress and coping models to ethnic/racial identity, discrimination, and adjustment among diverse adolescents.

Adopting the constructs of exposure, reactivity, and recovery, from stress and coping frameworks, this study investigated three models of discrimination, adjustment, and ethnic/racial identity among 76 African American, 145 Asian American, and 129 Latinx adolescents who were majority United States-born. The sample includes adolescents sampled from public schools in a large urban area in the northeastern United States, 62% female and with an average age of 14.3 years. Multilevel analyses support an exposure effect (Model 1) where a higher level of ethnic/racial identity (ERI) commitment was associated with a 28% reduction in experiencing discrimination stress. The negative effects of discrimination were attenuated by ERI commitment and centrality/private regard, while effects were exacerbated by ERI exploration (Model 2). Two approaches investigated next-day and longer-term recovery from discrimination (Model 3). With the exception of positive mood and anxiety, the data support recovery from discrimination stress. Discrimination is discussed in the development and maintenance of health disparities. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Cultural Socialization and Ethnic-Racial Identity Mediated by Positive and Negative Conversations about Race: Exploring Differences among Asian American, African American, Latinx, Multiracial, and White Students

ABSTRACT The current study examined associations between cultural socialization and ethnic-racial identity via positive and negative conversations about one’s ethnicity/race. Ethnic-racial differences between Asian American, African American, Latinx, Multiracial, and White students were explored. College students 18–22 (M age = 18.46) participating in a university-wide study provided self-reports of childhood cultural socialization, engagement in conversations about ethnicity/race during college, and ethnic-racial identity. Cultural socialization was associated with more positive conversations about race, and, in turn, greater ethnic-racial identity exploration, resolution, and affirmation among all students. Additionally, among Multiracial and African American students, cultural socialization was associated with greater negative conversations about race and, in turn, less ethnic-racial identity affirmation. Although cultural socialization was not associated with negative conversations about race for Asian American, Latinx, or White students, the relation between greater negative conversations about race and less ethnic-racial identity affirmation was significant. Negative conversations about race also informed greater ethnic-racial identity exploration among all students, but was not associated with ethnic-racial identity resolution. The current study highlights the nuanced ways that childhood cultural socialization and conversations about one’s ethnicity/race influence college students’ ethnic-racial identity, both similarly and differently among different racial groups.

The individual development of cultural identity and psychological well-being among adolescents with a migrant background in Austria: A longitudinal study.

Research has shown that cultural identity and psychological well-being are associated. We suggest that negative stereotypes challenge the psychological well-being of people with a migrant background. This research focused on the dynamics of adolescents' ethnic/racial identity (ERI), national identity, stereotype vulnerability, and psychological well-being on the individual level. The study was conducted in Austria over the course of one school year, providing insights on developmental implications of cultural identity for adolescents with a migrant background in Europe. The sample consisted of 317 (T1) adolescents with a migrant background, recruited at Austrian high schools (age: M = 15.19, SD = 1.11; 233 female; ethnic background: mainly Turkey and Ex-Yugoslavian countries). Longitudinal data from a three-wave study were analyzed by means of a random-intercept cross-lagged panel model. Within-person effects provided a better explanation than the between-person approach. Within-person processes suggest that higher levels of ERI commitment and higher national identity predict higher levels of psychological well-being at a later time point, whereas higher levels of ERI exploration and higher stereotype vulnerability predict lower levels of psychological well-being. At the between-person level, findings indicate a positive correlation between ERI exploration and stereotype vulnerability. The cultural identity and psychological well-being of adolescents with a migrant background fluctuate over time, influenced by the social context. Stereotype vulnerability contributes to lower levels of psychological well-being among adolescents with a migrant background in Austria. Our findings highlight the necessity to partition the variance of constructs to avoid confounding of between-person and within-person effects. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

The Influence of Ethnic-Racial Identity Developmental Processes on Global Bicultural Competence Development.

This study investigated ethnic-racial identity (ERI) developmental processes (i.e., exploration and resolution) as pathways for adolescents to develop global bicultural competence, or the ability to meet heritage and host cultural demands. The sample included 749 U.S. Mexican-origin youth (30% Mexico-born; 51% male) followed from early-to-late adolescence (Mage = 12.79-17.38 years). Longitudinal structural equationanalyses revealed that youth's sequential engagement in ERI exploration and resolution (from early-to-middle adolescence) promoted global bicultural competence in late adolescence. The findings highlight the benefits of achieving clarity about one's ERI via self-exploration efforts for adolescents' ability to respond effectively to bicultural demands. This study advances mechanisms via which ERI development may support youth adaptation to multiple cultural systems.

Understanding Ethnic-Racial Identity in a Context Where “Race” Is Taboo

ABSTRACT Ethnic-racial identity (ERI) is an important aspect of youth development and has been wellstudied for the last several decades. One issue less discussed is how the construct of ERI translates across different countries and cultures. The purpose of our paper is to describe the sociohistorical context of Germany and implications for the study of ethnic-racial identity in Europe. We discuss the German adaption of the Identity Project, an 8-week school-based ethnic-racial identity exploration intervention developed in the United States. We use this as a concrete example of how we thought through the focal construct of ERI to figure out how and whether it is a salient social identity category for youth in Germany where, in response to the history of racially motivated genocide, discussions of “race” are taboo. Digging into the ways ERI may not be directly transferable to different contexts can help us understand its nature as a socially constructed identity with real-life implications. Our hope with this paper is to further discussion, question our conceptualizations, and acknowledge how a detailed understanding of sociohistorical contexts is needed for the study of ERI.

The mediation process between Latino youths' family ethnic socialization, ethnic-racial identity, and academic engagement: Moderation by ethnic-racial discrimination?

Guided by García Coll and colleagues' (1996) integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children, the current study examined the role of ethnic-racial identity as a mediator through which family ethnic socialization was associated with academic engagement among Latino youth. Furthermore, based on the high prevalence rates of ethnic-racial discrimination among Latino adolescents, the associations between experiences with peer and adult discrimination and youth's academic engagement (controlling for family ethnic socialization and ethnic-racial identity) were tested. Finally, we tested whether discrimination from either peers or adults moderated the mediation process between family ethnic socialization, ethnic-racial identity, and academic engagement. Data were collected from a cross-sectional study of adolescents in the Southwestern United States. Participants in the current study consisted of self-identified Latino adolescents (N = 370; Mage = 16.14 years; SD = 1.12; Range = 14-18; 52.8% female; 96.2% U.S.-born) who completed self-administered surveys during school hours. Path analyses indicated that family ethnic socialization was indirectly associated with academic engagement via ethnic-racial identity. Adult discrimination was negatively associated with academic engagement; however, peer discrimination was not associated with academic engagement. Finally, neither source of discrimination emerged as a moderator of the associations of interest. Findings point to Latino youth's enhanced resilience against discrimination encounters when they have more experiences with family ethnic socialization and have engaged in greater ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).