Ethnic-racial Identity Development Research Articles

Perception Matters: The Influence of School Ethnic Racial Context on Ethnic Racial Identity Development for Black Adolescents.

In the current study, latent growth curve modeling is used to explore growth in ethnic-racial identity (ERI) commitment from 9th to 12th grade as a function of two aspects of the school ethnic-racial environment-perceived representation among peers and perceived discrimination from peers. The participants included 237 students that self-identified as African American (Mage = 14.7; 50% female). The results showed that perceiving more Black peers at school buffered the negative impact of racial discrimination from peers on ERI commitment. Further, the positive impact of perceived representation remained significant even after controlling for other markers of school ethnic-racial context including objective representation and school ethnic-racial diversity. The findings have implications for the environmental factors that support ERI development as well as how we study and conceptualize the influence of the school ethnic-racial environment.

Nadie Me Ve Como Latinx

Abstract Studies on how observers’ perceptions affect youth Ethnic-Racial Identity (ERI) formation focus on adolescents, and typically fail to consider non-English language use as a salient ERI marker. The current research examines two novel dimensions by examining employing Spanish-language mixed methods to study Midwestern heritage Spanish-speaking Latinx children, ages 7–13. Study outcomes correlate skin tone to ERI such that children identified by observers as ‘phenotypically’ Latinx reported higher levels of ethnic exploration compared to peers identified as ‘phenotypically’ non-Latinx. Children’s phenotypic self-identification and ERI exploration correlated highly with level of understanding of their ethnic group, and in turn with reported higher linguistic discrimination. Qualitative results further highlight that “white-presenting” Latinx children more strongly affirm their Latinx identity through high Spanish language competence. Findings suggest that healthy ERI development in Latinx children may be uniquely aided by bilingualism and biliteracy.

Is the Identity Project College-Ready? A Feasibility Pilot Study of an Ethnic-Racial Identity Development Intervention with U.S. College Students

ABSTRACT Ethnic-racial identity (ERI) development promotes psychosocial and academic adjustment during adolescence and early adulthood. However, preventive intervention research into ERI promotion among young adults is limited. The current feasibility pilot study analyzed qualitative data (i.e. interviews, surveys, field notes) to explore the supports and impediments to implementing the Identity Project (IP), an ERI promotive curriculum developed for high-school aged adolescents, with college-going young adults at one U.S. university. Participants (N = 48; M age = 19.52, SD = 1.56; 86.36% female or non-binary) were randomly assigned to participate in the IP curriculum or to only complete surveys; all participants were invited to participate in interviews. Axial coding and thematic analysis revealed that: (a) young adult developmental needs and the ubiquitous salience of ERI in college promoted demand for structured interventions like the IP; (b) college cultural norms and values (e.g., emphasis on instrumental educational aims and ERI not being universal) limited access to the resources necessary for the IP intervention to be practical in college; and (c) implementing the IP as an extracurricular activity is not feasible and should instead be done as a campus requirement. Implications for future IP studies and college-based ERI interventions are discussed.

Friendship Network and School Socialization Correlates of Adolescent Ethnic-Racial Identity Development.

Ethnic-racial identity (ERI) development is consequential for youth adjustment and includes exploration, resolution, and affect about the meaning of one's ethnic-racial group membership. Little is known about how identity-relevant experiences, such as ethnic-racial socialization and discrimination in peer relationships and school contexts, catalyze adolescent ERI development. The present study examines how identity-relevant experiences in friend and school contexts (i.e., proportion of same-ethnoracial friends, cultural socialization among friends, friends' ERI dimensions, friends' experiences of ethnoracial discrimination, and school promotion of cultural competence and critical consciousness) are associated with ERI development. A multivariate path model with a sample from four southwestern U.S. schools (N = 717; 50.5% girls; Mage = 13.76; 32% Latinx, 31.5% Multiethnic, 25.7% White, 11% other) was used to test these associations. Findings showed that friend and school predictors of ERI did not differ between early and middle adolescents, but significant differences and similarities emerged in some of these associations between ethnoracially minoritized and White youth. Specifically, friend cultural socialization was positively associated with ERI exploration for ethnoracially minoritized youth only, whereas school critical consciousness socialization was positively linked with ERI exploration only for White youth. Friend cultural socialization and friend network's levels of ERI resolution were positively associated with ERI resolution across both ethnoracial groups. These friend and school socialization associations were documented above and beyond significant contributions of personal ethnoracial discrimination to ERI exploration and negative affect for both ethnoracially minoritized and White youth. These findings expand our understanding of how friend and school socialization mechanisms are associated with adolescent ERI development, which is vital to advancing developmental theory and fostering developmental competences for youth to navigate their multicultural yet socially stratified and inequitable world.

Professional Development for Providing Time and Opportunities for Change in U.S. Teachers’ Ethnic-Racial Identity

ABSTRACT The purpose of this qualitative study was to describe teachers’ perceptions of changes in their ethnic-racial identity after completing professional development designed to support facilitation of a school-based ethnic-racial identity student curriculum – the Identity Project. We analyzed interview data from 11 U.S. high school educators (four Teachers of Color; seven White Teachers) who completed 32 training hours and post-program individual interviews to reflect on the impact of the program on their ethnic-racial identity. Based on reflexive thematic analysis, we found that the program influenced teachers’ ethnic-racial identity by offering them time and opportunities for change through guided self-reflection. This included participating in all aspects of the Identity Project that is designed for students and learning from and sharing with colleagues. The program (a) served as a reminder reinforcing prior learning about one’s ethnic-racial identity, (b) leveraged unique benefits of reflecting in community about issues of ethnicity, race, and identity, and (c) activated curiosity to learn more about one’s ethnic-racial identity and its connections with supporting students. Nevertheless, there was teacher-specific variation in these findings that illustrated nuanced experiences. Our findings illuminate paths forward for fostering teachers’ ongoing ethnic-racial identity development in the service of promoting students’ learning and well-being.

Adolescent Cultural Identity Development in Context: The Dynamic Interplay of the Identity Project With Classroom Cultural Diversity Climate in Italy and Germany

While both the classroom cultural diversity climate and curriculum-based interventions can promote cultural identity development, they have not been studied together. Drawing on theories of ethnic-racial identity development, the current study aimed to understand the dynamic interplay of a curriculum-based intervention (the Identity Project) with the classroom cultural diversity climate (heritage culture and intercultural learning, critical consciousness socialization and equal treatment) on cultural identity exploration and resolution. Our sample included 906 mid-adolescents in Italy (32.36% immigrant descent, Mage (SD) = 15.12 (0.68) years, 51.73% female), and 504 early adolescents in Germany (53.86% immigrant descent, Mage (SD) = 12.82 (0.89) years, 42.37% female). Bayesian multivariate linear models show that the Identity Project and a stronger critical consciousness climate in the classroom before the intervention promoted cultural identity exploration at post-test in both countries. However, effects of the intervention and facets of the diversity climate on subsequent resolution were only observed in Italy. There was some evidence that the intervention could alter the classroom cultural diversity climate in Germany, while the intervention could compensate for a less positive diversity climate in the slightly older sample in Italy. Thus, it seems promising to systematically build in opportunities to engage with students’ diverse heritage cultures and identities when developing new curricula, as well as to train teachers to implement such curricula.

Framing Ethnicity in Initial Teacher Education: A Focus Group Study with Student Teachers

ABSTRACT This study aimed to explore how student teachers experienced the framing of ethnicity in initial teacher education in Sweden. Ten focus group discussions were conducted (N = 42; 21% minoritized ethnic background). An inductive thematic analysis was used. The findings showed that ethnicity was framed as mainly concerning “others” and that it was framed as sensitive. The current framing of ethnicity suggests that initial teacher education does not prepare student teachers to support positive youth ethnic-racial identity development. The findings highlight a need for student teachers, and teacher educators, to explore their own ethnic-racial identities through critical discussions that challenge notions of ethnicity as something that concerns “others”. Furthermore, the findings highlight student teachers’ and teacher educators’ needs for structured support in how to critically engage in “sensitive” discussions. Further, the results illustrate how the framing of ethnicity resonates with aspects of social identity theory and with the postcolonial concept “othering”.

Ethnic-Racial Identity and Attitude Change: Assessments of Outgroup and Diversity Attitudes among Adolescents in Sweden

Outgroup and diversity attitudes are important components of intercultural understanding and well-being. Despite the potential of ethnic-racial identity development as a means to foster positive outgroup and diversity attitudes, little is known about its effectiveness in rapidly diversifying contexts such as Sweden. This pre-registered study filled this gap by examining if adolescents taking part in an intervention focused on ethnic-racial identity exploration, the Identity Project, also reported change in outgroup and diversity attitudes, and whether migration background, education type, and ethnic-racial identity development predicted such change. Twenty-three tenth-grade classes in Sweden (N = 509; Mage = 16.28; SDage = 0.80; 66% female; 51% migration background) participated in the intervention and were assessed in four waves over a period of 26 weeks. Whereas ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution increased for the intervention group, the adolescents reported no change in outgroup and diversity attitudes when compared to a control group. Increases in ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution co-varied with increases in attitudes, but only at Time 3. The results do not provide support for the link between ethnic-racial identity development and positive outgroup and diversity attitudes, and challenge the notion of attitude change as a cascading effect of the Identity Project intervention in non-US sociocultural contexts. All aspects of the study were pre-registered on the Open Science Framework platform (https://osf.io/f5896).

Main and interactive effects of discrimination, parent racial/ethnic socialization, and internalizing symptomology on BIPOC teens' ethnic-racial identity.

Research suggests that BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, People of Color) adolescents have the best developmental outcomes when strong, positive ethnic-racial identity (ERI) is acknowledged and embraced. This study investigated whether discrimination, internalizing symptomology, parent socialization, and/or interactions of these variables were associated with adolescent ERI, specifically in exploration, resolution, and affirmation, to illuminate nuanced ways BIPOC youth can achieve positive ERI. Recruited from third-party research panels, surveyed participants were adolescents (Mage = 15.28; 51.6% male) of diverse ethnic/racial groups and socioeconomic backgrounds from all regions of the United States. Overall, results showed that there were four significant main effects on ERI: a negative relation between internalizing symptomology and exploration, a positive relation between parent socialization and exploration, a positive relation between parent socialization and resolution, and a negative relation between internalizing symptomology and affirmation. There were also two significant interactive effects such that (1) discrimination had a stronger negative relation with affirmation under condition of high internalizing, and (2) parent socialization had a stronger positive relation with affirmation under condition of high internalizing. Results show development of ERI in adolescence is subject to multiple, interactive influences. Main and interactive effects highlight the contextual role that mental health implicates for youth of color. Implications for parents and practitioners are discussed.

Longitudinal Profiles of Cultural Identity Processes and Associations with Psychosocial Outcomes Among Adolescents Participating in the Identity Project in Italy

Cultural identity formation is a complex developmental task that influences adolescents’ adjustment. However, less is known about individual variations in trajectories of cultural identity processes and how they relate to youth psychosocial outcomes. Using a person-centered approach, this study investigated patterns of change over a year in cultural identity exploration and resolution, respectively, among ethnically diverse adolescents in Italy. The sample included 173 high school students (Mage = 15 yrs, SD = 0.62, range = 14–17; 58.4% female; 26% immigrant background) who had participated in the Identity Project, a school-based intervention targeting ethnic-racial identity development. Longitudinal latent profile analysis revealed only one profile of change for exploration, whereas four unique profiles for resolution emerged (“stable low,” “stable average,” “increase low-to-average,” “increase high-to-higher”). Overall, youth in the resolution-increase profiles reported the best outcomes. The findings highlight the heterogeneity of adolescents’ resolution trajectories and the benefits of an increased sense of clarity concerning one’s cultural identity for positive psychosocial functioning.

A preliminary investigation of longitudinal associations between ethnic-racial identity and critical consciousness among Black and Latinx youth.

In order for parents, educators, and communities to support racially/ethnically minoritized youth to resist and heal from White supremacy, it is important to examine how youths' beliefs about their ethnic-racial identity (ERI) and critical consciousness (CC) around racism inform one another. Despite this need, limited empirical research examines whether these processes are related across adolescence. The present two-wave longitudinal study investigates whether ERI content (i.e., centrality, private regard) and CC (i.e., critical social analysis, interpersonal antiracism actions) are associated with one another among Black and Latinx youth N = 233; young women (55.6%); young men (44.4%); M = 14.96 years old, SD = 1.46. Autoregressive cross-lagged panel models suggested that youths' centrality at W1 was positively and significantly associated with a critical social analysis at W2, and critical social analysis at W1 was positively and significantly associated with private regard at W2 for both groups. Involvement in interpersonal antiracism actions at W1 was positively and significantly associated with private regard at W2 for both groups. Group differences existed in the link between centrality at W1 and interpersonal antiracism actions at W2. Results indicate that ERI and CC may be viable entry points into stimulating youths' capacity to challenge racism, although there is promise in activating antiracism action to further stimulate ERI development. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Ethnic Racial Identity Development and Self-Esteem among Native American Adolescents: The Mediating Role of Peer Belonging.

While ethnic racial identity (ERI) development is associated with a variety of psychological well-being outcomes, the mechanisms through which this association operates is yet to be fully explained. During adolescence, social belonging is a developmentally salient process that can play a key role in how ERI impacts well-being. We sought to explore the mediating role of belonging to peer networks in the association between ERI and self-esteem among Native American adolescents. In this cross-sectional, mediational study, we used survey data from 317 Native American students attending a reservation high school (46.9% female; M age =16). Students' levels of ERI development were measured by combining items from two scales pertaining to ethnic identity development and racial identity. We employed a structural equation modeling approach to explore the mediating role of peer belonging in the association between ERI and self-esteem. Results suggest that our 4-item index of peer belonging was an acceptable measure of this construct. Further, the significant indirect effect of peer belonging explains a notable portion (β=.22, p ≤ .05) of the total effects of ERI on self- esteem (β=.54, p ≤ .05). This finding suggests that higher levels of ERI achievement contribute to higher levels of peer belongingness, which in turn lead to improved self-esteem among students. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

How is race perceived during adolescence? A meta-analysis of the own-race bias.

Adolescence is a critical developmental period that is marked by drastic changes in face recognition, which are reflected in patterns of bias (i.e., superior recognition for some individuals compared to others). Here, we evaluate how race is perceived during face recognition and whether adolescents exhibit an own-race bias (ORB). We conducted a Bayesian meta-analysis to estimate the summary effect size of the ORB across 16 unique studies (38 effect sizes) with 1,321 adolescent participants between the ages of ∼10-22 years of age. This meta-analytic approach allowed us to inform the analysis with prior findings from the adult literature and evaluate how well they fit the adolescent literature. We report a positive, small ORB (Hedges's g = 0.24) that was evident under increasing levels of uncertainty in the analysis. The magnitude of the ORB was not systematically impacted by participant age or race, which is inconsistent with predictions from perceptual expertise and social cognitive theories. Critically, our findings are limited in generalizability by the study samples, which largely include White adolescents in White-dominant countries. Future longitudinal studies that include racially diverse samples and measure social context, perceiver motivation, peer reorientation, social network composition, and ethnic-racial identity development are critical for understanding the presence, magnitude, and relative flexibility of the ORB in adolescence. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Integrating context in the examination of pubertal timing effects on disordered eating among Black and Latinx girls.

Earlier pubertal onset has been associated with increased disordered eating symptoms in cisgender girls. Although this finding has been replicated across studies of disordered eating, most studies have focused on white samples. The lack of studies is surprising given that early pubertal timing may impact disordered eating risk in Black and Latinx girls differently due to trends of earlier pubertal onset in these groups and increased stressors related to interpersonal and structural racism and economic marginalization. Current methods of examining pubertal timing among Black and Latinx girls may also not fully capture their experience. Contextual factors (e.g., neighborhood and school racial/ethnic composition) may influence how minoritized girls both perceive and are affected by their pubertal timing. Moreover, factors such as ethnic-racial identity development and experiences of discrimination may be important mechanisms explaining the association between pubertal timing and disordered eating risk. This paper aims to provide a brief overview of studies examining pubertal timing and disordered eating risk among Black and Latinx girls in the US and to discuss recommendations for future research that integrate contextual factors in the examination of pubertal timing and its effects. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: Early pubertal timing has been associated with increased risk of disordered eating symptoms among cisgender girls; however, studies have been limited due to the use of predominantly white samples. The article provides a brief overview of findings related to pubertal timing effects among Black and Latinx girls, discusses considerations for the measurement of pubertal timing, and highlights the need for inclusion of contextual factors in future research.

Constructed online experiences facilitate ethnic-racial identity development among Black and Latinx adolescents

Using latent profile analysis and a longitudinal design, we explored how Black and Latinx adolescents’ (N = 535; Mage = 14.47, SD = 1.99) construction of their race/ethnic and civic-related online experiences facilitated ethnic-racial identity (ERI) development over time. Profiles comprised five indicators: ethnic-racial identity exploration, making same-ethnic friends, same-ethnic group communication, other group orientation, and online civic engagement. We identified five profiles: Low Ingroup Connectors rarely made same-ethnic friends online. Moderate Connectors were average on all indicators. High Ingroup Connectors were high on seeking same-ethnic friends online. High Ingroup Engaged Connectors were highest on online ethnic-racial identity exploration, making same-ethnic friends, and civic engagement. Civically Engaged Connectors were high on online civic engagement and low on making same-ethnic friends online. Further, we found that High Ingroup Connectors had the most positive ERI outcomes one year later among Black and Latinx youth after controlling for earlier ERI and other covariates.

A Brief Report on Measurement Invariance for the Ethnic Identity Scale Among College-Attending Emerging Adults

Ethnic-Racial Identity (ERI) development research has been critical in further understanding youths’ psychological adjustment. The Ethnic Identity Scale (EIS) has been used extensively in this field of research to measure ERI. However, it has not been assessed for full measurement invariance, which is essential to ensure its effectiveness in measuring ERI differences across different ethnic-racial and gender groups. Thus, the current study sought to establish full factorial measurement invariance of the EIS between emerging adult college students across ethnic-racial groups (i.e., Asian American, Black/African American, Hispanic/Latinx, and non-Hispanic White/European American) and genders (i.e., male and female). Participants included 7165 students ( Mage = 19.71 years, SD = 1.50) from 31 colleges and universities across various U.S. regions. Results established full factorial measurement invariance for the EIS across groups. Additionally, we examined construct validity by establishing that associations between ERI and psychological adjustment were consistent across groups. Implications and limitations are discussed.

Application of the Enduring Legacy of the Integrative Model to Investigating White Adolescent Ethnic-Racial Identity Development

Intervening in White youths’ ethnic-racial identity (ERI) development during adolescence can support the development of positive anti-racist ideologies and behaviors that challenge privilege and oppression, increase awareness of and reduce implicit bias, and embrace positive intergroup contact attitudes; yet, little is known within developmental science regarding how White adolescents develop their ERI within the United States' sociohistorical context. Thus, this paper reviews the current literature on White ERI development and applies the Integrative Model (Garcia Coll et al., 1996), through its keen attention to how structures of power, privilege, and oppression have a direct impact on various environments and experiences for young people, to White youths’ ERI development. The social stratification of whiteness, school ethnic-racial socialization, color-evasive and anti-racist adapting cultural systems, and ethnic-racial socialization in White families are explored as mechanisms that impact White adolescents’ ERI development within a macrosystem characterized by white supremacy.

Message received: Concordance between parents and children in perceptions of messages about race and ethnic identity development.

The objective of this study was to examine the agreement between African American and Latinx parents and their school-age children regarding the amount of ethnic-racial socialization (ERS) parents provided and relations to youth ethnic-racial identity development. The sample included 353 parents and their 10-11 year-old children (57% Latinx; 55% boys), who both completed surveys 1 year apart. Latent difference scores were used to quantify agreement between parents and youth and to examine the relation between agreement and family and child characteristics including youth ethnic-racial identity development. Parents reported higher levels of ERS than children, and differences were greater for preparation for bias than cultural socialization. Higher levels of cultural socialization and greater discrepancies between parent and youth reports were associated with greater ethnic-racial identity development 1 year later. Greater discrepancies in report of bias preparation were associated with less ethnic-racial identity development, but this effect was not significant once the impact of parent-reported bias preparation was accounted for. Incorporating both parent and youth reports of ERS provides a more complete picture of these practices and associated outcomes. Implications for the study of ERS and clinical intervention are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The role of autonomy granting and ethnic-racial socialization in Mexican-origin girls' ethnic-racial identity trajectories.

The current study examines the role of ethnic-racial socialization (ERS) and maternal autonomy granting in predicting ethnic-racial identity (ERI) exploration, resolution, and affirmation trajectories in a sample of Mexican-origin girls (N = 338) in early and middle adolescence at Wave 1. Latent growth curve analyses showed significant growth in ERI exploration, resolution, and affirmation over 3.5 years. ERS, autonomy granting, and their interaction were associated with ERI trajectories. Results also indicated significant differences between early and middle adolescents in the association between ERS, autonomy granting, and ERI exploration trajectories. Findings demonstrate the importance of concurrently examining contextual and developmental predictors of ERI formation. In addition, ERS may be particularly important for ERI development among early adolescents, whereas autonomy processes and development may play a more prominent role during middle adolescence. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The Role of Family Ethnic Socialization and Generational Status in White Adolescents’ Ethnic-Racial Identity Development

Family ethnic socialization (FES) is a critical component of youth ethnic-racial identity (ERI) development. However, little research has focused on FES experiences amongst White families. The current study applied a convergent mixed methods design to investigate how immigration generational status (i.e., number of U.S.-born parents and grandparents) was associated with FES within White American families and the extent to which that informed adolescents’ ERI development. Utilizing survey data for White adolescents’ ( N = 532) self-reported FES experiences and ERI exploration and resolution, quantitative path analyses testing for mediation indicated that, as adolescents reported more family members born in the U.S., their FES experiences were lower and, in turn, their ERI exploration and resolution were also lower. FES fully mediated the relation between generational status and their ERI exploration and resolution. A theoretical thematic analysis of focus group data from a subsample of participants offered insights into how White adolescents described their FES experiences, illustrating the integral role of parents and grandparents for learning about their ethnic heritage, school’s role in facilitating FES, and various methods of maintaining familial collective cultural memory. The current study offers preliminary insights into FES among White families and identifies new questions for exploration future research.