Ethnic Minority Languages Research Articles

Translation of Hmong Folklore Terms in Hmong Oral Epic “Creating Heaven and Earth” From the Perspective of Eco-Translatology

The Hmong, a Chinese ethnic minority, possess a rich cultural heritage. Due to their unique history of exile and migration, the Hmong have scant documentation of their vanishing cultural heritage. The Hmong oral epic constitutes a vital component of documenting Hmong culture. Thus, this paper delves into the translation of the Hmong Oral Epic 'Creating Heaven and Earth', focusing on folklore terms as fundamental units for analyzing Hmong culture. Eco-Translatology has the great importance in protecting the languages of Chinese ethnic minorities and enhancing the dissemination of their literature (Li, 2017). Hence, this paper examines the translation of Hmong folklore terms in the Hmong Oral Epic 'Creating Heaven and Earth' from the perspective of Eco-Translatology. The study reveals 53 translations of Hmong folklore terms, encompassing material, social, and spiritual aspects, within the Hmong oral epic 'Creating Heaven and Earth'. For Hmong material folklore terms, translators predominantly employ the 'target contextualization' strategy, along with 'extending substitution' and 'vitalization' methods. For Hmong social folklore terms, translators favor the 'source contextualization' strategy, supplemented by 'adaptive addition' and 'vitalization' methods. For Hmong spiritual folklore terms, translators predominantly utilize the 'source contextualization' strategy, in addition to 'extending substitution' and 'naturalization' methods.

Linguistic landscape in George Town, Malaysia: Language visibility in a postcolonial and globalized context

The visibility of languages in the linguistic landscape reflects various aspects of linguistic diversity and dynamics in a given territory, signifying social interactions, identities, and power relationships among ethnic groups. However, postcolonial acontexts with widespread use of ethnic minority languages and the coexistence of state-sponsored national languages with precolonial official languages in the era of globalization have received limited research. This paper investigates the visibility of language in three neighbourhoods in George Town, Malaysia, a former administrative city under British governance, focusing on language visibility within three distinct neighborhoods: Chinatown, Little India, and the Beach Street. The study reveals a complex interplay of languages, highlighting the predominance of English as an information carrier and a symbol of modernity, alongside the increasing prominence of Chinese and the lesser visibility of Tamil and underrepresentation of other minority languages. The research underscores the ethnic boundaries between the vibrant enclaves of Little India and Chinatown, while Beach Street serves as a multicultural space reflecting a blend of local and global influences.

Minority language use in teaching: ethnic minority teachers’ perspectives in Southwest China

ABSTRACT While previous research has emphasised the crucial role of multilingualism in supporting language minority students’ schooling experiences, little is known about the perspectives of teachers from minoritised backgrounds regarding their encounters with and responses to linguistic diversity in education. This article employs in-depth interviews to investigate ethnic minority teachers’ perceptions regarding minority language use in their multicultural and multilingual educational settings in southwest China. Thematic analysis was applied to identify the main themes across the narratives from 12 ethnic minority teacher participants. The findings show that teachers believed ethnic minority language use contributes to teaching ethnic minority students and interacting with ethnic minority parents. However, teachers held a deficit thinking of minority languages when it came to improving students’ Chinese proficiency and school success. Moreover, teachers believed their ethnic minority status does not necessarily play a role in teaching. Instead, sharing the same languages with ethnic minority students could benefit teaching, which is different from the prior studies concluding that sharing the same ethnic background as the students contributes to the reduction of ethnic disparities in education.

The experiences of home-domiciled and international ethnic minority students on a pre-registration speech and language therapy training programme: A qualitative study.

Attainment inequalities exist for ethnic minority students graduating from higher education institutes (HEIs) in the UK. Previous research has investigated the outcomes and experiences of students from ethnic minority backgrounds on health and social care programmes. However, studies exploring ethnic minority speech and language therapy (SLT) students' experiences have only focused on international students and were conducted in Australia. No known studies exploring the experiences of both home-domiciled and international SLT students from ethnic minority backgrounds have been conducted in the UK. To explore the experiences of home-domiciled and international ethnic minority students on a SLT training programme and to identify ways to improve these experiences. All SLT students attending a pre-registration postgraduate course who identified as being from an ethnic minority background were invited to participate. Two focus groups, one for three international students and one for six home students, were conducted. Data were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis. Three themes were identified that illustrated students' current experiences and how experiences could be improved: (1) feeling an outsider, explores students' sense of belonging in SLT education; (2) finding ways to manage, describes the strategies used by students to cope with their experiences of marginalization, and how adopting these strategies impact on their well-being; and (3) promoting inclusion, explains how the training programme could be modified to improve the experience of ethnic minority students. A better understanding of the experiences of ethnic minority SLT students can help others to support them more effectively. The findings suggest that making changes to SLT training programmes could improve ethnic minority students' outcomes and experiences. These include: more training for staff and students, support groups for ethnic minority students, sharing lived experiences of students and experienced SLTs from ethnic minority backgrounds, and clearer ways of reporting racist incidents. International students would benefit from receiving more information on HEI support services and cultural practices in the UK. What is already known on this subject Previous studies have investigated the experiences of ethnic minority students on a range of HEI programmes, including those for students of physiotherapy and occupational therapy. The only studies investigating the experiences of ethnic minority SLT students are those exploring how international SLT students in Australia can be supported on professional placement. What this paper adds to the existing knowledge This study explores the experiences of home and international SLT students in the UK who identify as being from minority ethnic backgrounds. Findings suggest that these students feel like outsiders, affecting their sense of belonging. The need to find and implement strategies to manage their feelings of marginalization impacts on their well-being. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? The findings suggest measures to promote the inclusion of ethnic minority SLT students to improve their experiences and support their well-being. These include more training for all staff and students and the creation of a 'lived experiences library' where students and experienced SLTs from ethnic minority backgrounds could share positive experiences as well as ways of dealing with challenges. Clearer ways of reporting racist incidents would be beneficial for all students. International students would benefit from receiving more information on HEI support services and cultural practices in the UK. It is important that ethnic minority SLT students are involved in developments that aim to improve their experiences.

The Turkmen Language Survival in the City of Erbil: A Sociolinguistic Study

The main aim of the current study is to shed light on the current status of the Turkmen language in the city of Erbil. The main research questions for the current study are: Is the Turkmen language in any danger of extinction in Erbil? Does the Kurdistan Regional Government have any role in surviving the Turkmen language as an ethnic minority language in Erbil? The Turkmen language in Erbil is believed to be safe from extinction as Turkmen people use it in daily life without facing political or social issues. In order to obtain data, an open-ended survey is used involving 60 Turkmen teachers and instructors at Turkmen Atabag primary and secondary school for girls, Fuzuli primary and secondary coeducational school, Oghuzkhan primary and secondary school for boys, Gharibi high school for girls, Imaddadin high school for boys, and the Turkish Department at Salahaddin University/ College of Languages. For analysing the achieved data, the researcher used a mixed methods research approach, encompassing both quantitative and qualitative methods. The researcher follows the work of Mühlhäusler (1992) as an adopted model. The current study concludes that the Turkmen language is not in any danger at all in the city of Erbil. Moreover, the Kurdistan Regional Government plays a great role in surviving the Turkmen language in the city of Erbil.

Impact of Social Vulnerability on Cardiac Arrest Mortality in the United States, 2016 to 2020.

Cardiac arrest is 1 of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality, with an estimated 340 000 out-of-hospital and 292 000 in-hospital cardiac arrest events per year in the United States. Survival rates are lower in certain racial and socioeconomic groups. We performed a county-level cross-sectional longitudinal study using the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Wide-Ranging Online Data for Epidemiologic Research multiple causes of death data set between 2016 and 2020 among individuals of all ages whose death was attributed to cardiac arrest. The Social Vulnerability Index is a composite measure that includes socioeconomic vulnerability, household composition, disability, individuals from racial and ethnic minority groups status and language, and housing and transportation domains. We examined the impact of social determinants on cardiac arrest mortality stratified by age, race, ethnicity, and sex in the United States. All age-adjusted mortality rate (cardiac arrest AAMRs) are reported as per 100 000. Overall cardiac arrest AAMR during the study period was 95.6. The cardiac arrest AAMR was higher for men compared with women (119.6 versus 89.9) and for the Black population compared with the White population (150.4 versus 92.3). The cardiac arrest AAMR increased from 64.8 in counties in quintile 1 of Social Vulnerability Index to 141 in quintile 5, with an average increase of 13% (95% CI, 9.8%-16.9%) in AAMR per quintile increase. Mortality from cardiac arrest varies widely, with a >2-fold difference between the counties with the highest and lowest social vulnerability, highlighting the differential burden of cardiac arrest deaths throughout the United States based on social determinants of health.

Perspectives of Vietnamese Students and Teachers Regarding the Preservation of Languages of Ethnic Minorities

Background: In today’s globalized world, ethnic minority languages face an increasing threat of extinction, both on a global scale and within specific countries. The urgent need to preserve and promote awareness of these languages among younger generations cannot be overstated. Purpose: The present study was undertaken to investigate the perspectives of students regarding ethnic minority languages, as well as the efforts undertaken by teachers and schools to safeguard and preserve these languages. Methods: A sample of 3,250 ethnic minority students and 646 teachers actively participated in this research, allowing for a rich and diverse range of viewpoints to be gathered. Results: The findings of this study revealed that students hold a deep appreciation for their native languages and possess a keen understanding of the imperative nature of their preservation. It is heartening to note that schools and teachers have also been actively engaged in implementing various initiatives and policies to protect and promote ethnic minority languages. Conclusion: While it is important to acknowledge the existence of challenges and obstacles in this endeavor, the overall results paint an encouraging picture. The fact that students value and embrace their ethnic minority languages, alongside the commitment demonstrated by educational institutions and teachers, provides hope for the continued existence and resilience of these linguistic treasures. Originality/value: It is through the dedication and collective efforts of all stakeholders involved that ethnic minority languages can defy the threat of extinction and thrive for generations to come.

Language change and multilingualism in an ethnic city in China: a diachronic linguistic landscape perspective

ABSTRACT This study adopts an apparent-time diachronic linguistic landscape (LL) approach to investigate the vitality of an ethnic minority language in China, namely the Nuosu Yi (诺苏彝). Diachronic LL research is concerned with changes in language use on signage over time. It provides insights into phenomena such as language shift, which is challenging to be unveiled through synchronic research. This study collected a total of 1233 signboards, which were made from 2002 to 2021, and thirty follow-up interviews with store owners. By analysing the data statistically and qualitatively, this study demonstrates the changes in language use on private signs of Xichang (the capital city of Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture). A significant finding was a trend for multilingualism, in which the status of Chinese has changed from a monolingual to multilingual dominance, and English has benefited the most from the trend. The use of Nuosu Yi has been high over the two decades, but some issues have arisen with its use on some of the recent-made signs. This study provides a new approach to apparent-time LL research and demonstrates its importance in understanding the dynamic nature of the vitality of ethnic minority languages.

Challenges faced by English education in ethical minority areas under the background of Bilingual Education Policy for ethical minority students: Taking Yunnan Province as an example

With the promulgation of the national bilingual education policy, the vast majority of ethnic minorities have learned to master both Mandarin Chinese and ethnic minority languages, providing them with more opportunities for their development, but it does not emphasize their foreign language skills to go out into the world. Therefore, the research theme of this paper is the challenges of English language education in ethnic minority areas in the context of bilingual education, taking Yunnan Province as an example. The study finds that there are three main challenges facing English language education for ethnic minorities. They are language teaching issues in ethical minority areas, English teacher issues in ethical minority areas, and people’s attitudes toward English learning in ethical minority areas. Firstly, there are a lot of problems with English teachers, such as the impact of minority languages on Han English teachers is big, insufficient teacher resources, low professional quality, and high turnover. Then, the students learn English with language transfer and are not interested in it. Finally, schools, teachers, parents, and students do not value English education enough.

State-supported language strategies in Azerbaijan: promotion of Azerbaijani and multilingual initiatives.

The wealth of every independent and sovereign country is the abundance of language on its territory, in which the nationalities living there can freely use their languages. In addition to the State language, there are more than 15 languages spoken by ethnic minorities in the Republic of Azerbaijan. In addition to the languages of ethnic minorities, the population of the country uses other foreign languages, which are included in the group of world languages. The objects of research in this article are foreign languages and their relationship to the state language. The legislative acts adopted to regulate the language vector in the country are the subject of research. The author describes in detail and highlights the legislative bodies and government structures that play a crucial role in the development of language policy in the country. In the course of studying language policy, one cannot do without considering the following two main sociolinguistic terms: language regulation and language planning, which are of the nature of state or social impact on the functioning or development of languages in the state. The author mainly used the theoretical method in the study of the article, and also conducted a general analysis of the data. The conclusions are based on legal methods, as well as sociolinguistic methods (statistical and expert assessments). The necessary information in the field of the current language policy in the country was obtained during the analysis of legal documents. Foreign languages of global importance are in great demand among young people, increasingly studying these languages, they delve into the origins of this language, study the history of this country and through this prism the phenomenon of acculturation through language is observed. The author considers in more detail the status of the state language both de jure and de facto, and also considers in detail the position of the most widespread foreign languages in the republic. The language reforms carried out in the Republic of Azerbaijan mainly serve to strengthen the role of the Azerbaijani language as the state language and have the character of linguistic purism. Despite the ongoing reforms in the field of strengthening the state language, we are also considering a balanced language policy with regard to other languages existing on the territory of the Republic of Azerbaijan, the purpose of which is to preserve linguistic pluralism.

Abstract P104: Geospatially Varying Relationships of Green and Blue Spaces With Biomarkers of Stress and Cardiometabolic Risk in Racially and Ethnically Diverse Children

Introduction: Neighborhood green (e.g., parks) and blue (e.g., lakes) spaces have been associated with reduced stress and cardiometabolic risk (CMR), but research is limited in socially vulnerable urban communities affected by structural racism and redlining. This study explored the spatial correlation between green and blue spaces and cortisol levels, BMI percentile, waist circumference (WC), pulse, and systolic (SBP) and diastolic blood (DBP) pressure in a sample of racially/ethnically diverse children. Methods: We used cross-sectional data from the Family Matters cohort study, consisting of 1307 racially/ethnically diverse families with children (age 7±1.5 yrs). Participant addresses were matched to the US 2010 Census tract attributes. We used 246 sample locations across 149 census tracts in the 7-county Twin Cities, MN, metro area. Green and blue spaces were retrieved from the Twin Cities Metropolitan Council. Hair cortisol (chronic stress biomarker), BMI, WC, pulse, SBP and DBP were objectively measured in a subsample of 246 children. We used Decision Tree and Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) to examine the spatially varying associations of CDC’s Social Vulnerability Index (SVI) and green and blue spaces (independent variables) with biomarkers of stress and CMR (dependent variables). SVI reflects four themes: socioeconomic status, household composition and disability, racial and ethnic minority status and language, and housing type and transportation. Results: Northwest Minneapolis was identified as a hotspot for elevated cortisol, BMI, and WC, while east St. Paul was a hotspot for elevated BMI and WC. Decision trees indicated that green and blue spaces explain variation in accumulated cortisol after tract socioeconomic status and racial and ethnic minority status. GWR revealed nonuniform relationships with the highest explanatory power in high social vulnerability hotspots. GWR’s R 2 for cortisol (0.07), BMI (0.14), and WC (0.14) were driven by hotspots where local R 2 was 2-5 times stronger than areas not identified as hotspots indicating robust geographical variations in the northern areas (areas of high social vulnerability) and distance from green and blue spaces. Patterns were inconsistent for pulse, SBP, and DBP. Conclusions: The spatially varying relationships of green and blue spaces with biomarkers of stress and CMR in children were heterogeneous, possibly indicating different mechanisms across biomarkers and geographical areas. Higher cortisol levels, BMI percentile, and WC in northern Twin Cities areas may reflect the legacy of structural racism and redlining, which have resulted in inequitable use of green and blue spaces for minoritized communities. Future interventions co-developed with local communities to improve green and blue spaces’ access and use, as well as to reduce disparities in stress and CMR, are needed to advance health equity.

VITALITY OF THE LAUJE LANGUAGE ENCLAVE IN THE FAMILY DOMAIN IN TOLITOLI REGENCY

This research aims to describe the vitality of the Lauje language as an enclave of ethnic minority languages in Tolitoli Regency, Central Sulawesi. The method used is a sociolinguistic approach with questionnaires, interviews, observation, and recording techniques. Next, it was analyzed descriptively based on frequency and percentage calculations and processed using the SPSS program. The results of the analysis show that the vitality of the Lauje language based on age, those aged 40–50 years and those aged over 60 years is still very strong, namely the Lauje language, and those aged under 20 years and those aged 20–39 years are in a position that is vulnerable to decline. Furthermore, the vitality of the Lauje language is based on education; respondents with no school education and stable basic education maintain their Lauje language but have the potential to experience decline. The vitality of the Lauje language in the family domain based on work as farmers is still stable in maintaining its language, and those who work as housewives are still very strong in maintaining their language. The Lauje language is in a safe position. Overall, the vitality of using the Lauje language in the family domain is 0.69, which means that the vitality of the Lauje language in the family domain is in a stable, steady position but has the potential to experience decline.

WRITING SYSTEMS OF ETHNIC MINORITY LANGUAGES IN VIETNAM AND THE CASE OF NUNG


 There are over 33 writing systems of ethnic minority languages in a truly multilingual country of Vietnam, some of them are traditional writing systems, while others have been created in recent decades. This paper provides an overview of writing systems of ethnic minority languages in Vietnam. It also presents a closer look at the way the language policy is implemented in Vietnam and the effect it has over language competence, language use and language attitudes of Vietnamese people towards their writing systems. Despite the fact that a great number of minority ethnicities in Vietnam have their own writing systems and some of them have more than one writing system, very few ethnic minorities can use their local writing systems as the levels of literacy are quite low. The paper reveals that although Vietnam has gained remarkable achievements in preserving and promoting languages and writing systems of ethnic minorities, there is still a lot to be done. The advantages of the current language policy of Vietnam regarding the ethnic minority languages and writing systems are quite substantial. At the same time the study also notes the disadvantages that cause difficulties in preserving and promoting languages of ethnic minorities in Vietnam, including the case of Nung language.

Adjective Lithuanianisms of the Kursenieki Language in Written Sources

In the 15th and 18th centuries, part of the Curonian population moved to the Curonian Spit. The settlers brought their own dialect, which became a separate ethnic minority language when they mixed with Lithuanians, Germans, and descendants of Prussians. It was mainly used in fishing and in fishermen’s homes. It did not have its own script, but various linguists and ethnographers have tried to record it using the scripts of other languages (German, Lithuanian, Latvian). Monuments of the Kursenieki language are sparse. In order to investigate the influence of the Lithuanian language on the adjectival lexis of Kursenieki adjectives from the point of view of etymology, and to examine how the impact of the Lithuanian language on Kursenieki adjectival lexis has changed over the last 150 years, the adjectival inventories of the Kursenieki language at the end of the 19th century, the beginning of the 20th century, and the end of the 20th century are compared in the article. The descriptions of adjectives done by linguists who have studied the Kursenieki language are not exhaustive, as the descriptions of the loanwords of the Kursenieki language from the Lithuanian language tend to focus on nouns and verbs.
 The first dictionary in the study material is Maximilian Voelkel’s dictionary Die lettischen Sprachreste auf der Kurischen Nehrung, published in Tilsit in 1879. Its adjectival inventory is the smallest of the three dictionaries taken as the study material. The second source is a glossary compiled by Juris Plāķis and included as an appendix to his study Kursenieku valoda, published in 1927. The inventory of adjectives in this glossary is the largest. The third glossary was published in 1993 in Christliebe el Mogharbel’s dissertation, Nehrungskurisch. All three dictionaries contain a combined total of 272 adjectival lexemes. The distinction between the borrowings and inheritances was based on the Latvian dictionary (Mīlenbahs ir Endzelīns, 1923–1932), the Lithuanian dictionary (Naktinienė, 2017), and the following criteria: phonomorphological, lexical, formation, semantic, and geographical. A total of 50 lexemes were identified, which can be considered Lithuanianisms. Among them, there are some problematic cases that could be assumed to be Curonisms. In total, nine Slavisms have been identified from the identified Lithuanianisms (since Kursenieki language did not have direct borrowings from Slavic languages, they are classified as Lithuanianisms). Slavisms have been divided into adapted and non-adapted Slavisms. It has been observed that the semantic group of the Christianity discourse is particularly prominent in the adjectival inventory under study.
 In order to better observe the interaction between Lithuanian and Kursenieki languages, additional material from a period older and later than the period under study was taken for comparison – Peter Pallas’ dictionary Linguarum totius orbis Vocabularia comparativa of the late 18th century; and the decoded material of one audio recording recorded by Dalia Kiseliūnaitė at the beginning of the 21st century, collected during expeditions in Sweden.

Introduction: multilingualism and multilingual education in China

ABSTRACT In recent years, the field of multilingual education has begun to focus on the differences, dynamics, and complexities of multilingual learning among different groups. Relevant research has contributed to a deeper understanding of the mechanism underlying language learning and development in the applied linguistics community. Resonating with the trends, this special issue features seven articles, focusing on the learning and development of multilingualism in China. Specifically, the collection investigates core issues including language attitudes, cognitive processes and development, identity formation and development, curriculum development, and language policies among users of ethnic minority languages (e.g. Yugur, Tujia, Yao, Mongolian, Miao, Zhuang, Uyghur) and (dialects Teochew dialect) with quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research methods, and cross-sectional and longitudinal research designs. The findings of this special issue help to provide insights for language policy makers, language education researchers, and practitioners at micro, meso, and macro levels.

Current situation and path of foreign minority language protection based on Internet of Things from the perspective of ethnic identity

Ethnic identity is an important reason for national unity. The formation of ethnic groups is mostly due to external and internal reasons, with a complex mechanism structure. When people’s environment is destroyed, this value identity will be stronger, national cohesion and solidarity will grow sharply, an unprecedented high. Minority languages are characterized by a wide variety, cultural generation, and dynamic evolution. The languages are complex and diverse, and are deeply influenced by their cultural heritage. This has led to the fact that for a long time, minority languages have been learned almost exclusively by people of their own ethnic group. This has led to a steady decline in the number of minority language speakers. However, the birth of the Internet of Things (IoT) has created an opportunity for the development of minority languages. Foreign minority languages have the following status (1) rapid decline (2) many endangered languages (3) low willingness to learn. In order to further investigate the current situation of minority language protection, the team conducted a survey in the minority cluster A. The results of the survey are as follows: most of the villagers are in love with the ethnic language and must inherit and promote the ethnic language, which is the wealth of a nation, but there are also a few residents who think that Mandarin should be used to replace the ethnic language. This reflects that most of the residents love the national language, but their young people as the inherited generation lose their love for the national language and are not willing to inherit and promote it. To solve this problem, an Internet of Things (IoT)-based ethnic language data system has been constructed so that the data system for ethnic minority language protection built through IoT technology can become the last line of defense for protecting ethnic languages, while allowing ethnic languages to be known and understood by more people through IoT technology, fostering the love and reverence of ethnic minority people for ethnic languages, and enhancing other ethnic groups’ sense of identity and support for ethnic languages. We propose to protect minority languages. Ultimately, we propose recommendations for the preservation of minority languages. (1) Increase publicity for minority language preservation. (2) Construct laws and regulations related to minority language protection. (3) Conduct in-depth research on minority language work and build an information base. (4) Promote minority language education.

Authenticating ‘mother tongue’ in a multilingual minority community

ABSTRACT This study examines mother tongue in a multilingual region which includes a national language, a recognised ethnic minority language, and multiple other minority languages (including so-called ‘dialects’) and English. We probe into practices and perceptions of one designated ethnic minority group in China across domains of family, community and education through a process of authentication. Drawing on a questionnaire of 576 students with local, multilingual education experience and interviews with 48 students of the Zhuang minority group, we examine the intersubjectivities of language, ethnicity and Chineseness. The findings highlight an unwavering affirmation of Putonghua (PTH) dominance as central to Chineseness along with wavering support of Zhuang and other minority languages or dialects as linked to ethnicity and regional identity. Crucially, our data show that the policies and ideologies around recognised minority languages can make it difficult for speakers to name or claim their ‘mother tongue’. The analyses suggest that ‘mother tongue’ is a misnomer in many ways as it is not primordial, matrilineal or geneological but is based in (primarily monolingual) ideologies which do not adequately represent multilingual individuals and communities. We propose a conceptual framework to expand our understanding of the authentication of mother tongue and the resilience of minority/minoritised language, problematised by monolingual ideologies.

Investigating Social Factors in Linguistic Changes in Afghanistan

Afghanistan is a multi-ethnic, linguistic and religious country and more than 30 ethnic and linguistic groups live in it, however, the official languages of this country are Pashto and Dari. Hence the unofficial languages of different ethnic groups during time has led to the forgetting of some of them and the predominance of official and dominant languages. Some language changes include administrative, educational and academic formalities, environmental factors, people's lack of awareness of preventing the destruction of the language and its ethnic identity, the existence of civil wars and even foreign political and cultural factors. The languages of a number of ethnic groups like the language of an ethnic group Hazaras, Imaq, Qazalbash, Qirqiz, Arab, Sadat, and Parachi has been reduced and forgotten due to various environmental, political, administrative, natural conditions, forced decisions and motives have caused their language to be forgotten and destroyed. Even the Pashto language, which is the official and national language of Afghanistan, in a large number of localities, regions and provinces where Pashtuns lived, their ethnic language has forgotten. The general factors of this forgetting and changing the language are the marginal status of these ethnic groups among the large ethnic groups, administrative, educational and academic formalities, political and compulsory pressures, civil wars, and the lack of awareness of the people to prevent the destruction of the language and thereby their linguistic and ethnic identity. The purpose of the current research is to investigate and analyze the linguistic changes of different ethnic groups in Afghanistan. Furthermore, the purpose of this research is to introduce the forgotten languages of Afghanistan's ethnic minorities, why and how the languages of small ethnic groups are disappearing, and what should be done? The research method of this article is descriptive and analytical, and the means of collecting library information is the use of articles, books, internet resources and observation. Keywords: Language, changes, Afghanistan, Social factors

Preserving and Promoting Indigenous Languages of Ethnic Minorities in Bangladesh: A Strategic Planning Framework

Bangladesh is a country with multi-ethnic communities. The majority of the population is Bengali-speaking Bengalese. Around fifty indigenous communities are the rest of the population who have other indigenous languages. Because of the narrow scope, any languages in such conditions have a chance of extinction. For a vibrant and harmonious multi-ethnic society, linguistic and cultural diversities require respect and recognition. Besides, these languages possess epistemic values and are considered sources of primitive knowledge. The government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh has taken an affirmative initiative to preserve indigenous language and culture. To meet this goal, preservation and promotion of indigenous languages is imperative. By Article 23(A) of its constitution, its education policy of 2010 and its law ‘Small Ethnic Groups Cultural Institutes Act of 2010’ indigenous language rights are restored. Following the government decision, the National Curriculum and Textbook Board publishes primary school textbooks in five indigenous languages. But these are not enough to keep all the indigenous languages alive. Many more actions are necessary to facilitate the constitutional declaration of indigenous language development like publishing textbooks in more indigenous languages, indigenous language teachers’ training and other initiatives. This paper attempts to fill the gap between initiatives taken by the government and the actual necessity of full-fledged affirmative action as it is necessary as the source of the indigenous knowledge. It primarily depends on the literature, official documents and interviews of the respected stakeholders. The outcome of this study is important for the national integration of the countries like Bangladesh that possess a multi-ethnic, pluralistic society.

An Overview of Bilingual Education for Ethnic Minorities in China

The advancement of science and technology has brought people closer. The globalized world has not only made bilingual education increasingly popular but placed demands on more bilingual or even multilingual talents. As a multilingual and multicultural country, China has 55 ethnic minorities spread out in different provinces and regions across the country. The studies on bilingual education mainly focused on English and other global languages (e.g., Spanish, French), with few studies focused on Mandarin Chinese and ethnic minority languages in China. Aiming to provide more insight into the current situation of bilingual educational practices in China, the study offers an overview of the research landscape on bilingual education of ethnic minorities in China, so as to provide references for bilingual educational practices in China and other countries and intrigue new research possibilities.