Ethical Opposition Research Articles

Does generative artificial intelligence pose a risk to performance validity test security?

Objective We examined the performance validity test (PVT) security risk presented by artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots asking questions about neuropsychological evaluation and PVTs on two popular generative AI sites. Method In 2023 and 2024, multiple questions were posed to ChatGPT-3 and Bard (now Gemini). One set started generally and refined follow-up questions based on AI responses. A second set asked how to feign, fake, or cheat. Responses were aggregated and independently rated for inaccuracy and threat. Responses not identified as inaccurate were assigned a four-level threat rating (no, mild, moderate, or high threat). Combined inaccuracy and threat ratings were examined cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Results Combined inaccuracy rating percentages were 35 to 42% in 2023 and 16 to 28% in 2024. Combined moderate/high threat ratings were observed in 24 to 41% of responses in 2023 and in 17 to 31% of responses in 2024. More ChatGPT-3 responses were rated moderate or high threat compared to Bard/Gemini responses. Over time, ChatGPT-3 responses became more accurate with a similar threat level, but Bard/Gemini responses did not change in accuracy or threat. Responses to how to feign queries demonstrated ethical opposition to feigning. Responses to similar queries in 2024 showed even stronger ethical opposition. Conclusions AI chatbots are a threat to PVT test security. A proportion of responses were rated as moderate or high threat. Although ethical opposition to feigning guidance increased over time, the natural language interface and the volume of AI chatbot responses represent a potentially greater threat than traditional search engines.

Аксиологические особенности концептов ШIУ (ДОБРО) и БЗЭДЖАГЪ (ЗЛО) в адыгской лингвокультуре

The aim of the research is to define the axiological features of the objectification of the concepts ШIУ (GOOD) and БЗЭДЖАГЪ (EVIL) in the Adyghe linguoculture. The paper considers the peculiarities of the linguistic representation of moral and ethical categories of good and evil in the Adyghe linguistic picture of the world through the prism of the value conceptosphere. The scientific novelty of the research consists in the fact that it reveals for the first time the linguocultural specifics of the actualization of the value characteristics of the concepts ШIУ (GOOD) and БЗЭДЖАГЪ (EVIL) in the Adyghe linguistic picture of the world. The analysis of the peculiarities of lexical and phraseological-paremiological objectification of the concepts ШIУ (GOOD) and БЗЭДЖАГЪ (EVIL) in the Adyghe linguoculture is carried out. As a result of the research, it was established that the concepts ШIУ (GOOD) and БЗЭДЖАГЪ (EVIL), being an ethical opposition, are objectified implicitly and explicitly by various linguistic units, reflect the moral values of the Adyghe and determine the value dominants of the national linguistic consciousness. The opposition ШIУ/БЗЭДЖАГЪ is connected with both material and spiritual values of the Adyghe linguocultural community.

Musical symbols of good and evil in “Psalms of Repentance” by Alfred Schnittke

This article is dedicated to determination of the system of musical-expressive means used by Alfred Schnittke to symbolically reflect the ethical opposition of good and evil in the “Psalms of Repentance”. The relevance of this research is substantiated from the perspective of heightened attention of the composers of the XX century to the musical symbolism that replaced programmability. The study is based on the method proposed by E. M. Akishina for determining the symbols of good and evil in different layers of timbre and texture arrangement of instrumental compositions of A. Schnittke. Application of this method to “Psalms of Repentance” for a cappella choir allows tracing the manifestation of these symbols on the timbre, phonism, melodic arrangement, musical language, and composition. The novelty of this article consists in the fact that unlike instrumental music of A. Schnittke, his compositions for a cappella choir are viewed from such analytical perspective for the first time. The following conclusions were made: the choral and instrumental compositions of A. Schnittke contain a ramified system of musical-expressive means, which clearly distinguishes the symbols of good and evil;  these symbols outline the logic of dramatic development of each part of the “Psalms of Repentance”; their interaction within the framework of general concept of the cycle contains the ultimate ideological message – human choice, which determines his path along the line of sin as eternal Evil or through repentance – on the way towards God as the highest Good.

ФОРМУВАННЯ РИТОРИЧНОЇ КУЛЬТУРИ УЧНЯ ПОЧАТКОВОЇ ШКОЛИ ЗАСОБАМИ ПАРЕМІОЛОГІЇ: КОНЦЕПТУАЛЬНИЙ АСПЕКТ

The article deals with paremias as a means of forming the rhetorical culture of primary school pupils. A large group of proverbs and sayings has been found to contain guidelines for the rules of communication that our people have produced over the centuries. First of all, national folklore condemns; excessive talkativeness; false and cruel words. Instead, it appreciates prudent true language.The paremological fund actualizes contextual antonyms such as conversation – reason, conversation – act, conversation – truth. Universal ethical opposition good – evil is also reflected in the paremias concerning the rules of communication. The good word inspires, supports, warms the soul, and the evil word destroys and degrades.An important conceptual guideline in paremies is “silence is often better than speaking”. These paremies give a direct indication of the behavior of the communication, but also to a certain extent stimulate the comprehension of what is heard, of the experience, and not of empty talk.Separately distinguish the often actualized negative model word - not gender, which seeks to eliminate the identity of the word and something frivolous, irrelevant.The lexical-semantic groups “arms”, “musical instrument”, “bird”, “food”, “textilе, embroidery technique”, “treasure, money” are the donor zones for the metaphorization of the word. Such metaphorical models convey the word’s ability to hurt like a weapon; its elusiveness, like that of a bird; properties sound beautifully borrowed from musical instruments; fat and sweetness inherent in food; beauty and fluidity of embroidery and value for money.Different types of work with paremias will not only promote speech development, but will also familiarize students with the rules of rhetorical communication, enhance their communicative culture.

The Cultural Pragmatics of an Event: the Politicization of Local Activism in Russia

The paper analyzes the politicization of local activism in Russia caused by the 2011–12 protest movement “For Fair Elections”. The authors propose the theoretical model of an eventful social change at a micro level integrating different approaches such as pragmatic sociology, cultural sociology, eventful approach, and social movement studies. They argue that before the protests, Russian local activism was apolitical as it was based on the ethical opposition between (good) “real deeds” and (bad) “politics”, as well as on the anti-ideological belief in the authenticity of “self-evident” facts. The politicization of a-political activism was stimulated by the “eventful protests” of 2011–2012 and was not a break with a-politicism, but new arrangements of “self-evident” facts and ideological campaigning, of oppositional “politics” and getting real things done.

The Сoncepts of Russian Cosmism in the Works by I. A. Bunin: «The Gentleman of the World» and «The Cosmopolite»

The article considers the peculiarities of the philosophical concepts implementation and the essence of anthropocosmism in the works by the great Russian writer, Nobel prize winner I. A. Bunin. A comparative analysis of his works «The Gentleman from San Francisco» and «Waters Aplenty» is given. The cultural phenomenon of wandering is shown in order to reveal a specific character of the writers poetic universe. The peculiarities of I. A. Bunins anthropocosmic philosophy are described, his idea of the universe as of a structured world and of the man in the light of the artistic and philosophical, religious and ethical opposition «The Gentleman of the World» - «The Cosmopolite» is substantiated.

Postfeministički trendovi u savremenoj književnosti za mlade - preispitivanje binarne opozicije žrtva/zločinac u romanu Helen Kros Leto ljubavi

The paper discusses a postmillennial trend in contemporary culture characterized by an 'exhaustion of originary victimary experience' and the questioning of postmodern 'victimary thinking'. It specifically focuses on postfeminists' criticism of 'victim feminism' and their attempts to question the firm ethical opposition of the female victim and the male perpetrator that is central to victim feminism discourse. After a brief theoretical discussion of postfeminist approaches to the victimary paradigm that dominates second wave feminism, the paper proceeds to explain how this paradigm influenced both twentieth-century criticism and production of female Bildung narratives. Finally, it presents Helen Cross's coming-of-age novel My Summer of Love (2001) as an example of a new stage in the development of the genre marked by the author's attempt to reassess the female victim/ male perpetrator binary.

Match-Fixing: Working Towards an Ethical Framework

How does match-fixing, or other unfair manipulation of matches, that involves under-performance by players, or refereeing and umpiring that prevents fair competition, be thought of in ethical terms? In this article, I outline the different forms that match-fixing can take and seek to comprehend these disparate scenarios within Kantian, Hegelian and contractualist ethical frameworks. I tentatively suggest that, by developing an ethical opposition to match-fixing in sport, we can give much greater substance to popular phrases such as ‘respect for the game’, encompassing the value of sport itself and respect for other players, fans, sponsors and organisers. Arguing that match-fixing denies recognition to these ‘others’ demonstrates how fundamentally match-fixing ‘hollows out’ sport because a fixed match is of no worth: the whole value of the game has literally been evacuated.

Poets and the Devil’s Party

Poets and the Devil’s Party Jennifer Davis Michael (bio) The Devil as Muse: Blake, Byron, and the Adversary by Fred Parker (Baylor University Press, 2011. 216 pages. $29.95) This new book in Baylor’s series The Making of the Christian Imagination explores an old topic: the perennial and peculiar affinity between the artist and the Devil. By the sheer act of creation, the artist treads dangerously close to Lucifer’s challenge of divine authority. Closely associated is the suspicion that such extraordinary powers must come from Hell if they cannot be explained as a normal part of human psychology. Finally the free exercise of imagination has always resembled madness, which in turn was once thought to be the work of a possessing demon. In this study, however, Fred Parker avoids many of these familiar themes, focusing instead on what he calls “a radical tension between the ethical and the aesthetic,” a tension that finds expression in the ambiguous role of the Devil in literature as “Adversary, the supreme figure of opposition, in a multiple sense: as the opponent of God; as the accuser who brings the knowledge of good and evil, that divisive polarity which shapes most ethical thought, and as the figure who tells us that our habits of reflective consciousness . . . are alienated, fallen, the mark of our exile from the garden.” With this complex set of associations in mind, he explores how poets make use of this adversarial muse. Refreshingly free of jargon and engaging to read, the book offers not an exhaustive treatment of the subject but a series of approaches for the reader to explore the idea of opposition as “true Friendship” (to borrow Blake’s phrase). The book’s subtitle is somewhat misleading since Parker deals not only with Blake and Byron but also substantially with Goethe’s Faust and Mann’s Doctor Faustus, and to a lesser degree with Milton’s Paradise Lost and Bulgakov’s The Master and Margarita (though not with Marlowe’s play). His discussion of Mann’s novel frames the book: a prologue in chapter one uses the composer Leverkühn as a test case, suggesting that his artistic breakthrough reaches an “equivocal” state beyond opposition. Parker suggests that the artist, by engaging with the supreme “otherness” of the Devil, frees us from the ethical opposition of good and evil and from our alienated reflective consciousness; but this is achieved at a great price. Chapter two traces the history of Satan in Christian tradition, noting that the “unambiguously evil Devil” is a late development. Although the Church Fathers made him the Evil One, he appears throughout the Old Testament as an accuser and prosecutor, but never completely split from God. This is what Parker terms the “secret history” of the Devil, a much more ambiguous figure who “used to work for the divine administration, and conceivably still does.” Parker explores this ambiguity through a brief examination of Milton, whom Blake identified as “a true Poet and of the Devil’s Party without knowing it.” Although Milton follows the received narrative of Satan’s rebellion, he grants sufficient ambiguity for us to [End Page iii] see God’s allowing Satan to act as he does. Parker suggests that the same dualistic thinking that defines the Devil by separating good from evil is also able to “call itself into question” as it recalls the Archangel in his unfallen glory. The central chapters on Blake and Byron trace the well-known relationship of each poet with the Devil, but in each case suggest a specific connection between the stance of parody (in Blake’s case) or the cynical spectator (in Byron’s) and the opposing or ambiguous voice of the Devil. The parodic or reflective voice can help to uncover truth, but it also threatens to undermine the power of imagination to transform. I quibble with Parker’s negative evaluation of Blake’s Milton, which seems to hang on Parker’s opinion that Blake’s poetry peaks in the early to mid-1790s and falls away after that. His reading of Byron focuses primarily on the later works, especially Don Juan, whose style of narration incorporates “the Mephistophelean bathos.” This reading...

Reducing the Adverse Impact of Injection Drug Use in Canada

Reducing the Adverse Impact of Injection Drug Use in Canada

Propranolol Use in the Prevention and Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military Veterans: Forgetting Therapy Revisited

The alarming number of military service members returning from combat suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has stimulated research into the treatment and prevention of PTSD, using pharmacological agents including the beta-adrenergic blocker propranolol. Propranolol use has been examined in three phases of memory, including acquisition, formation, and encoding; emotional response and consolidation; and retrieval and reconsolidation. Early research focused on acquisition and consolidation with encouraging but inconsistent results, with more recent research directed towards memory reconsolidation, and dissociation of emotion and fear from memories. Ethical opposition to this research and therapy came from the President's Council on Bioethics, who argued in Beyond Therapy (2003) that this type of therapy disrupts sense of self, and from a target article and ensuing discussion in theAmerican Journal of Bioethics in 2007. These arguments preceded research on the effects of propranolol on reconsolidation, which impacts the ethical discussion. If propranolol use in dissociation of emotion and fear from memory is effective in individuals with PTSD, much of the argument against propranolol use is moot. Veterans who cannot function in society due to PTSD have essentially already lost their sense of self. The ethical issue is not how treatment may affect them, but whether withholding research and treatment that may alleviate the condition is justifiable.

New evolutionary foundations: Theoretical requirements for a science of sustainability

Ecological economics stands in theoretical and ethical opposition to many aspects of neoclassical economic theory. Despite their sound critiques of that theory, ecological economists have not settled on an alternative theory of human behavior. As a potential alternative, Norgaard’s socioecological coevolutionary framework remains underspecified in terms of variation, heredity, and selection. I review concepts and insights on human behavior from evolutionary biology and evolutionary social science in order to supply new theoretical tools for ecological economic problems, and help refine the coevolutionary framework. I argue that a synthetic evolutionary theory of human behavior provides a sufficient alternative to the neoclassical perspective, and that cultural evolutionary theory is a necessary prerequisite of a mature economic science, ecological, coevolutionary or otherwise. Finally, I suggest some potential topics that such a mature theory might begin to tackle.

Krieg, Kairos und Kunst

The aim of this essay is to show how the most important elements of Albrecht Fabri’s theory of an autonomous work of art have been shaped by the formalisation of two kinds of time experience during war: namely, monotony, and choc. Monotony may create selfreference, yet it needs the Kairos of the choc to allow for an aesthetic experience. It only apparently opens the chance of a reconciliation of antinomies because it may lead to blind acts of exclusion. War letters by Siegbert Stehmann (1912–1945) remind us of the possibility of keeping both sides of an ethical opposition in mind. Nevertheless, Fabri is lead to a purely self-referential aesthetics of literary and artistic material by the formalisation of war experience as is shown by his writings about T.E. Lawrence, in contrast with E.G. Winkler’s. The case of Benn makes one ask in how far the restless production of autonomous art has to be seen as a sublimation of his and other’s decline to explicitly revise their political views from 1933 in later years. Most fundamental theses of Fabri are present in his pre-war essays already and seem just to have been enhanced by war experience.

II. Intimate Violations: Intersex and the Ethics of Bodily Integrity

When Cheryl Chase founded the Intersex Society of North America (ISNA) in 1993 by publishing a letter in the journal Sciences inviting people with intersex anatomies to contact her, one of her key criticisms of unwanted cosmetic genital surgery was that it has been ‘immensely destructive of . . . one’s sense of bodily integrity’ (p. 3). Chase’s letter is viscerally persuasive, I think: it would seem to be common sense that the destruction of bodily integrity is ethically objectionable. But I will argue that to ground a critique of medicine in the injurious experience of cosmetic genital surgery is to assume an alignment between two sets of oppositions – the bodily opposition between interior and exterior, and the ethical opposition between right and wrong. I don’t think these oppositions hold, and consequently I will suggest that their alignment doesn’t hold either. To explain why many critics of traditional intersex treatment regard the maintenance of bodily integrity as the ethical measure of medicine, I want to begin with the testimony of intersex activist and former ISNA secretary Esther Morris. ‘I feel invaded by pain and health concerns that never were addressed during treatment’, writes Morris, who received surgery at age thirteen for the congenital absence of a vagina (2004: 27). In a patient narrative of the kind valorized in recent years by medical ethicists such as Arthur W. Frank (1995), Morris is recording the negative effects on her personhood of the childhood genital surgery that intersex treatment reformists criticize. ‘I feel invaded by the ignorance of experts’, she continues; ‘I feel invaded by depression that takes too long to wane’ (2004: 27). It is clear that Morris, in concord with a general emphasis by ISNA on patient experience, seeks to reverse the usual power relations between doctors and patients by calling the ‘experts’ ignorant. Faced further by the fact that ‘quality of life and emotional support were never part of my care’, Morris berates the medicalization of intersex (2004: 25). Such medicalization has caused despair and discomfort, her testimony makes clear. The debilitating effects of medicalization lead Morris to privilege her lived experience as an individual with intersex over the medical approach to its treatment: the latter, she complains, ‘is focused on correcting intersex variations, not

Inter-species therapeutic cloning: the looming problem of mitochondrial DNA and two possible solutions.

95 THE CONCEPT of therapeutic cloning, proposed by Gurdon and Colman,1 entails the synthesis of tissues or organs for transplantation into a patient starting from embryonic stem (ES) cells that are genetically identical to that patient, due to having been derived from an oocyte whose nucleus was replaced by one taken from the patient (a process termed somatic cell nuclear transfer, SCNT). It remains the leading proposal for exploiting stem cell technology in the clinic in a manner that avoids the severe drawback of immune rejection. However, it presently faces three formidable hurdles. One, our ability to manipulate the differentiation of ES cells along a desired lineage, is progressively being overcome. The others, unfortunately, are more sociological than technical and are thus, perhaps, even greater. These are (a) the profound ethical concerns voiced by highly influential policy-makers and (b) the inadequate supply of human oocytes to permit synthesis of autologous tissues and organs at a rate comparable with demand. Two recent papers2,3 would seem to cast doubt on the feasibility of the only currently available proposal for escaping both these latter problems. In this perspective, I will explain that proposal, the problem with it that is highlighted by these papers, and two possible ways to avoid that problem. First it is appropriate to mention two other proposals, each of which avoids one of the sociological issues mentioned above but not the other. The supply problem might in principle be met by isolating large numbers of oocytes from females who have died in infancy, since the infant ovary contains many times more oocytes than in adulthood. However, this seems likely to encounter even more ardent ethical opposition than the use of oocytes donated by consenting adults. Conversely, the ethical problem may in principle be met by our recently developed ability to differentiate ES cells into oocytes,4 but the limited availability and variety of the cell lines presently authorised for federally funded work is potentially a barrier to high-volume production of such oocytes. The proposal that meets both objections is to use oocytes from non-human species. The idea here is simple. A non-human oocyte is made of non-human proteins, but when its nucleus is replaced by a human one and development is begun, those non-human proteins are progressively diluted and degraded, so that the ES cells that are the source of the eventual tissue or organ are entirely human in composition. Well, almost entirely—but not, in this protocol, quite. The problem is that not all our proteins are encoded in the nucleus: a paltry 13 of them are encoded in the mitochondrial DNA. Paltry in number but not in function: these proteins are essential subunits of the respiratory chain, without which the cell cannot use oxy-

Fetal positions

The ethical opposition to cloning technologies appears to be softening.

Warshawski's Situation: Beauvoirean Feminism and the Hard-Boiled Detective

When Sara Paretsky began publishing stories about hard-boiled detective Victoria (V. I.) Warshawski, her challenge, she remarked, was to negotiate the change from a male to a female protagonist without making Warshawski Philip Marlowe in drag, to work within the conventions of the traditional hard-boiled detective tradition without making Warshawski's femininity an occasion for parody.' This was not an easy task because, as Paretsky recognized, giving the hard-boiled detective a female body fundamentally complicates the web of associations that legitimate his patterns of action, attributes of character, and relations to his world; it disrupts the genre's association of masculinity with that special kind of self capable of the effective investigation and execution of justice. Escaping from the all-or-nothing economy of formulaic adherence to convention or outright genre parody, Paretsky instead undertakes the more complex work of reimagining and reconceiving the way the convention figures the relation between sexed bodies and individual agency.2 Grounded in the situation of a female body acting within a patriarchal environment, a detective like Warshawski fundamentally complicates the ethical opposition deeply enmeshed in the ethos of American masculinity that informs the classic Chandlerian hard-boiled detective, that between the inherent corruptness of collectivity and the potential purity of properly guarded individuality. The theoretical model that best articulates Warshawski's combination of individualist action with her awareness of its social context is one that, like Warshawski herself, is the product of a feminist reworking of a mid-century, masculinist vision of the world. In much the same way that Paretksy's fiction reconfigures the classic hard-boiled detective, in The Second Sex (1949) Simone de Beauvoir reworks the conceptual framework of Sartrean existentialism from a perspective grounded in the embodiedness of female experience.' And, just as Paretsky's fiction seems untimely in its contemporary feminist appropriation of a seemingly anachronistic set of conventions, Beauvoir's work is difficult to take seriously in a contemporary context because of its

「臓器移植法」施行後第一例(「高知脳死移植」)にみる「患者の人権」と医療報道 : 「プライバシー保護」と「情報公開」。その医学倫理的検証

「臓器移植法」施行後第一例(「高知脳死移植」)にみる「患者の人権」と医療報道 : 「プライバシー保護」と「情報公開」。その医学倫理的検証

The Public's Preference for Bedside Rationing

Ubel and Arnold¹do a remarkable job of cataloguing the flaws in the ethical opposition to bedside rationing as compared with thirdparty rules. Although they are correct that we are sorely in need of empirical data about the actual effects of bedside rationing, they might have observed that we do have knowledge of public opinion. Considering that other rationing mechanisms are enforced by insurers and government bureaucrats, the public is overwhelmingly on the side of rationing by medical professionals. A 1992 poll conducted by the Employee Benefit Research Institute, Washington, DC, found that 35% of those surveyed would prefer their family physician to set any necessary limits on health care services, 35% would chose a local panel of medical professionals, and only 9% would favor insurers or employers setting limits. A nationwide survey conducted in 1994 by Harris (commissioned by the Medica Foundation, Minneapolis, Minn) found that 34% of

Pharmacy computer prescription databases: methodologic issues of access and confidentiality.

To examine methodologic issues of access and confidentiality regarding the use of pharmacy computer prescription databases (PCPDs) for participant selection to receive mailed, self-administered, hypertensive quality-of-life survey outside a primary-care setting. Two separate PCPD searches by pharmacist owners for patients prescribed at least one of 130 potential antihypertensive medications. The first PCPD used a nonrandom sample of all patients (n = 635); the second PCPD used a random sample (n = 100) of three specific antihypertensive drug groups. Research protocol was approved by the investigators' institutional review board. Two independent, privately owned PCPDs. Individuals prescribed at least 1 of 130 PCPD medications potentially used in antihypertensive treatment. Individually addressed cover letter on pharmacy letterhead signed by a pharmacist requesting voluntary completion of the enclosed, self-administered, opinion survey on quality of life. Anonymous survey return to off-site post office box in envelope provided. Favorable or no opposition to PCPD methodology from pharmacist or participants. Ethical opposition was encountered when incorporating PCPD sampling technique into grant proposal. The American Pharmaceutical Association Code of Ethics is used as a basis to provide recommendations to examine and justify PCPD investigative use. Increasing availability of PCPD technology encourages more efficient and easier methods of research strategy. PCPD use, however, demands identical stringent guidelines used in traditional research and raises potential issues regarding pharmacist-patient confidentiality as well as the right of PCPD use by others.