Estuary Restoration Research Articles

Environmental state of a small intertidal estuary a decade after mangrove clearance, Waikaraka Estuary, Aotearoa New Zealand

Unlike many parts of the world, mangrove coverage has been steadily increasing in Aotearoa,New Zealand since the 1900s. Intentional mangrove removal in Aotearoa New Zealand is often motivated by a desire to remove muddy sediment from sites that were once sand-dominated. Mangrove removal can result in geomorphic and ecologic evolution over decadal timescales, yet monitoring of removal sites is often limited to a few years. This study presents the result of over a decade of monitoring in Waikaraka Estuary, a quiescent embayment where mangroves were removed between 2003 and 2012. Surface elevation was monitored between 2006 and 2019, and sediment cores and surface samples collected in 2019 were analysed for grain size, total organic content, and root biomass to assess geomorphic change. Remaining mangroves areas and benthic macrofauna were surveyed throughout the estuary to assess ecologic change. Despite initially rapid movement of mud out of cleared areas, the estuary has experienced little bed-elevation change over a decade. The upper estuary remains muddy, and much of the root biomass has not decomposed. However, the region near the mouth of the estuary has become sandier with the return of bivalve species Austrovenus stutchburyi (cockles) and Macomona liliana. These long-term measurements demonstrate the slow pace of recovery following mangrove removal in quiescent embayments. Without major changes to hydrodynamics, mud is unlikely to be flushed out and bivalve habitat is unlikely to be restored even after a decade. Site-specific characteristics should be assessed when evaluating the efficacy of mangrove removal for estuary restoration, to moderate community expectations.

A life cycle model for evaluating estuary residency and recovery potential in Chinook salmon

Understanding the spatial and temporal habitat use of a population is a necessary step for recovery planning. For Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), variation in their migration and habitat use complicate predicting how restoring habitats could impact total recruitment. To evaluate how juvenile life history variation affects a population’s response to potential restoration, we developed a stage-structured model for a Chinook salmon population in a northern California river with a seasonally closed estuary. We modeled the timing of juvenile migration and estuarine use as a function of freshwater conditions and fish abundance. We used the model to evaluate the sensitivity of the population to different estuary and freshwater restoration scenarios that could affect population parameters at different life stages. The population’s run size increased most in response to freshwater restoration that enhanced spawning productivity (egg and fry survival), followed by spawner capacity. In contrast, estuary restoration scenarios affected only a subset of Chinook salmon (average 15%), and as a result, did not have a large impact on the total recruitment of a cohort. Under current condition, estuary rearing fish were over six times less likely to survive than fish that migrate to the ocean in the spring or early summer before estuary closure. Because estuary residents experienced low survival in the estuary and in the ocean, improvements to both estuary survival and growth would be needed to increase their total survival. When life cycle monitoring data is available, life cycle models such as ours generate predictions at scales relevant to conservation and are an advantageous approach to managing and conserving anadromous salmon that use multiple habitats throughout their life cycle.

Participatory processes and the evolution of environmental agendas in estuary restoration: the Maketū case

ABSTRACT The article analyses participatory processes in estuary restoration in Maketū on the East Coast of the North Island to examine how evolving relational dynamics amongst key stakeholders and Māori led to the achievement of a collective environmental imaginary. The case, marked by a history of conflict over the diversion of the Kaituna River and resulting estuary degradation, led to a focussed period of community engagement between 2006 and 2009 which established a collective intention to restore the ecological health of the estuary. Ongoing community engagement has been a feature of restoration project design and implementation. In examining this case, we draw on the concept of imaginaries, referring to shared visions of desirable futures, to explore how ‘imaginaries of process’ and ‘imaginaries of outcome’ played out among a heterogeneous set of stakeholders and Indigenous actors. We undertake a discourse analysis of relevant documents and of interviews and focus groups with 25 participants to demonstrate how inclusive participatory processes were used as a technique to resolve estuary degradation, address historical grievance between Māori, the community and local authorities, and reset the governance and management relationships between these actors.

Using marsh organs to test seed recruitment in tidal freshwater marshes.

PremiseSeed recruitment niches along estuarine elevation gradients are seldom experimentally field‐tested under tidal regimes of the Pacific Northwest of North America. Addressing this knowledge gap is important to better understand estuary restoration and plant community response to sea level rise.MethodsGermination was tested in marsh organ mesocosms across an elevation gradient (0.5–1.7 m above mean sea level). Seeds were sown on sterile peat moss, and the tops of pipes were secured with horticultural “frost cloth” to ensure no experimental seeds were washed out and no new seeds were introduced. The trials tested artificial and overwinter chilling regimes, as well as the presence and/or absence of a near‐neighbor transplant.Results Carex lyngbyei had significant elevation‐driven germination after overwinter and artificial chilling. Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani had near‐significant germination across elevation after overwinter chilling, and germination in the absence of competition was significantly greater than with a near‐neighbor transplant.Discussion Carex lyngbyei had the highest germination rate at higher elevations, which suggests restricted seed recruitment potential and required clonal expansion to extend into lower marsh elevations. Identifying species‐specific recruitment niches provides insight for restoration opportunities or invasive species monitoring, as well as for estuary migration under sea level rise.

Shifting discourses of nature in participatory processes for environmental management

ABSTRACT The increasing use of participatory processes in environmental governance and management has implications for the way different conceptualisations of nature and the environment are recognised within environmental decision-making. This article draws on a case study of the Ōngātoro Maketū estuary restoration initiative in Aotearoa, New Zealand, to examine how shifting discourses of nature and the environment intersect with the exercise of power to influence decision-making on the estuary. The study is based on a qualitative analysis of an archive of historical policy and planning documents, and 25 in-depth interviews with participants involved in the restoration initiative. The analysis demonstrates that despite a participatory process that often reinforced the dominant cultural paradigm and power relations, it created the space for different knowledge forms including western science and Māori knowledge to help improve the quality of decisions. We argue that well-designed participatory processes have much potential to address the growing complexity and uncertainty underpinning environmental governance and management.

The Abundance and Distribution of Hatchery and Naturally Produced Chinook Salmon in Columbia River Estuary Nearshore Habitat

AbstractColumbia River hatcheries release millions of juvenile Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha to support fisheries and mitigate for historical productivity declines from dam construction and upriver habitat losses. Recent federal biological opinions for Federal Columbia River Power System operations also have mandated restoration of estuarine rearing habitats to mitigate for mortality of naturally produced (NP) salmon at main‐stem dams. We compared genetic stock compositions, distributions, abundances, and length frequencies of hatchery‐marked and unmarked Chinook Salmon to evaluate the extent of hatchery influence on nearshore estuarine habitat use and the potential for interactions between hatchery‐origin (HO) and NP salmon. Cumulative Chinook Salmon releases from all hatcheries in 2010 and 2011 dictated estuarine stock composition, abundance, and life histories during the spring–summer migration peak. Naturally produced salmon from the lower Columbia River populations, including many fry migrants, were most abundant, but larger HO juveniles also frequented nearshore sites, where their total biomass often equaled or exceeded that of NP fish. Large releases of a single stock of origin (Spring Creek Group fall run) in April and May created sharp pulses in the estuary entry timing of fingerling‐sized salmon and dominated abundance and stock composition at some sites. Successive releases from scores of hatcheries during spring and early summer ensured a consistent presence of HO salmon near shore, regardless of the habitat‐specific residence times of individual fish. Overall, the historical replacement of diverse wild populations with fewer hatchery stocks of a narrow size range and migration timing has intensified nearshore habitat use during the spring–summer migration peak and reduced life history variation of Columbia River Chinook Salmon. Such changes could undermine the fish conservation goals of both hatchery mitigation and estuary restoration programs.

Explaining reflexive governance through discursive institutionalism: estuarine restoration in Aotearoa New Zealand

ABSTRACT The paper examines an instance of reflexive governance in environmental policy and planning and explains its emergence through a discursive institutional lens. Discursive institutionalist frameworks draw attention to the articulation and institutionalisation of new ideas and the way they produce the objects of governance, powerfully influencing the conceptualisation of problems and solutions, determining who is involved in governance processes and the nature of their interactions, and environmental policy outcomes. We draw on the notion of a discursive institutionalist spiral as a way of understanding the nearly 40-year evolving relationship between ideas, discourses and institutions that have shaped the planning context in an estuary restoration initiative on the east coast of the North Island, New Zealand. The case is based on the analysis of an archive of historical policy, planning and technical documents, and 25 in-depth interviews with participants representing different groups involved in a current restoration initiative. We suggest that the case represents a new degree of reflexivity by the responsible governing authority, that this can be explained by reference to the historical dynamic of discursive and institutional change, and that it indicates the benefits of the interactive and participatory formulation of goals and strategies in environmental governance and management.

Tidal Marsh Plant Community Development within Four Restored Lowland Estuaries in the Western Peninsulas of Washington State, USA

Vegetation and soil within estuarine ecosystems play an integral role in ecological processes within pocket estuaries. However, physical barriers, caused by culverts diminish hydrological inputs, sediment exchange, and habitat connectivity. The restoration of estuaries by bridge replacement reconnects the aquatic corridor, however, the recovery of plant communities and soil substrate is not well understood. This observational study monitored four estuary restoration sites of variable ages (0 - 12 years) in Western Washington, USA. Plant community composition, soil organic carbon, organic matter, and soil nutrients were assessed. Percent soil carbon was different among the pre-restoration and youngest (3-year) post-restoration site (P = 0.03), suggesting an initial decrease in carbon and organic matter during restoration. Both N and P were deficient at the newest, lower restoration site, presumably linked to the lack of organic matter required for adequate cation exchange capacity and nutrient/plant exchange (P P = 0.02). Vegetation composition was primarily native species with few invasive plants present. The results of this study illustrate that tidal marsh plant communities are influenced by the development of salinity and vertical gradients with older sites having an increase in species diversity. Future surveys are ongoing to better understand how these sites recover organic matter and tidal marsh communities to form adequate estuarine habitat over time.

Sediment transport in a restored, river-influenced Pacific Northwest estuary

Predicting the success of future investments in coastal and estuarine ecosystem restorations is limited by scarce data quantifying sediment budgets and transport processes of prior restorations. This study provides detailed analyses of the hydrodynamics and sediment fluxes of a recently restored U.S. Pacific Northwest estuary, a 61 ha former agricultural area near the mouth of the Stillaguamish River in Washington, USA. Water level, flow velocity, and suspended-sediment concentration (SSC) were measured between 21 March 2014 and 1 June 2015 at breaches excavated in the former flood-protection levee to determine transport patterns and the net sediment budget of the restoration area. SSC within the restoration area was primarily controlled by SSC variability of the nearby main stem Stillaguamish, but coastal processes also played a major role in sediment delivery. Fluvial sediment loading was dominated by runoff events associated with rainfall that lasted hours to a few days. Additionally, the 22 March 2014 SR 530 (Oso) landslide elevated sediment supply to the restoration area and coastal region for several weeks, indicating the importance of distal geomorphic events to coastal sediment budgets in small mountainous river systems. Sediment fluxes were controlled by river SSC and tidal dynamics, which set the quantity of water transported into the restoration area. Peak water discharge at the restoration area was about 12% of the river discharge, and peak sediment flux at the restoration area was about 5% of the river sediment discharge, although net sediment import was <1% of the total river load. Although sediment was imported to the restoration area, and inferred rates of accretion appear sufficient to keep pace with present rates of local sea-level rise, full recovery is challenged by significant lost grade from historical subsidence and will likely take decades to centuries. These results have implications for estuary restoration planning globally and indicate the importance of understanding coupled fluvial–coastal processes.

Tidal Asymmetry Changes in a Shallow Mud Estuary by a Restoration Project

The tidal asymmetry-induced siltation below tidal barriers is a worldwide problem that restricts regional socio-economic and environmental development. The hydrodynamic processes of the small mud estuary also feature a high uncertainty after estuary restoration measures. In this study, a hydrodynamic model based on the MIKE21 is used to quantify the responses of tidal asymmetry to a two-phase restoration project in Shuanglong Estuary, Bohai Bay, China. According to the numerical modeling results, the tidal flat removal in the upper estuary (first-phase restoration) induces the flood asymmetry switching to the ebb asymmetry in unrestored reach but enhances flood asymmetry in widening restored reach. Although the tidal asymmetry reverts to flood-dominated pattern after full restoration over the estuary, the imbalance between flood and ebb velocities is relieved. A possible net sediment transport pattern based on a comparison of dominant asymmetric current and actual sediment transport period shows net sediments in the upper estuary and inlet transport seaward and landward, respectively, in the first-phase restoration, whereas landward net sediment transport occurs in the whole estuary under the second-phase restoration scenario. Given these results, we assume that a switch from the flood-dominated estuary to ebb-dominated estuary can be caused by redesigning the cross-sectional profile. The quantitative comparison of Lagrangian residual currents also implies that a channel–shoal structure rather than a flat bathymetry can promote the mass transport. Therefore, reshaping the channel–tidal flat system in restoration projects can prevent the sedimentation of the estuary and improve the water environment.

TIDAL CHANNEL GEOMETRY OF BARRIER EMBAYMENT SYSTEMS IN PUGET SOUND

This paper will present the first year of findings from a research project with the objective of producing empirically based models of tidal channel characteristics that can be broadly applied to design estuary restoration projects in Puget Sound. A combination of field data collection methods and desktop analysis are being utilized to calculate tidal prism, channel dimensions, marsh extent, and water surface elevations to parameterize well-functioning barrier embayments in Puget Sound. The tidal channel data will be used to conduct a regression analysis and develop hydraulic geometry scaling relationships. The goal of the study is to develop one set of regression lines for the Puget Sound basin; however, if the data collection reveals important differences between sub-basins, then two or more regressions may be developed. For example, Hood (2015) found wave exposure contributed to differences in tidal channel geometry in the major river deltas within Puget Sound. Differences in wave exposure and tide range among the sub-regions of Puget Sound could create a need for creating more than one set of scaling relationships (e.g. North Sound and South Sound).

The capacity of estuary restoration to enhance ecosystem services: System dynamics modelling to simulate recreational fishing benefits

Recreational fishing activity has recovered in the Nerbioi estuary (Northern Spain), after water sanitation and environmental improvement. Recreational fishing is important for the local population; therefore, future management measures that could cause changes in the estuary should also consider the impacts on recreational fishing. Our objective was to analyze the effects that future management decisions and unexpected environmental changes, alone or in combination with climate change effects, can produce in recreational fishing in Nerbioi. The current recreational fishing activity was modelled using a System Dynamics Modelling (SDM). Based on those results, seven future scenarios were simulated. Results suggested that the adoption of future management measures to improve the environmental conditions could lead to additional positive changes for recreational fishing, as after water quality improvement, fish stocks will continue to recover, and these better conditions could attract more fishers and increase their satisfaction. Simulation of temporary and unexpected environmental changes resulted in quick estuarine recovery, without dramatic consequences for recreational fishing. In conclusion, analysing future scenarios on cultural ecosystem services such as recreational fishing, using SDM, can produce valuable information for decision making processes, facilitating the selection between environmental management alternatives.

Policy pivot in Puget Sound: Lessons learned from marine protected areas and tribally-led estuarine restoration

Environmental change amplifies the challenge of protecting and restoring Puget Sound. As rising pressures from population growth, development, unsustainable resource use, climate impacts and other factors alter this urbanizing basin, efforts to recover salmon and ecosystem health and to enhance climate resilience face unprecedented social complexities and intensifying competition for space. A multi-method study of citizen and practitioner perspectives on protection and restoration suggests that capacity to manage under these conditions can be improved through strengthening an approach that has already become central in restoration practice: multiple-benefit planning. In this research, we examine and compare planning approaches used to develop marine protected areas (MPA) and estuary restoration (ER) projects in Puget Sound. Surveying non-tribal public attitudes toward these projects, we found limited knowledge concerning existing MPAs but support for wider use of such protections. We find that initiatives pursuing conservation, protection, restoration and resilience can gain advantage from (a) broadly inclusive and collaborative planning; (b) recognition of tribal treaty rights, management authorities, and leadership; (c) careful consideration and mitigation of project impacts on affected people (e.g. especially tribal and non-tribal fisheries for MPAs; farm interests and landowners for restoration projects). We note that “no-take” MPA designation has stalled, while ER efforts are overcoming sharp objections and controversies by crafting projects to deliver multiple social-ecological benefits: improved flood control and drainage, salmon recovery, recreational enjoyment, and resilience to climate change. Comparable strategies have not yet evolved in designation of “no-take” MPAs in Puget Sound. We offer conclusions and recommendations for accelerating conservation and resilience initiatives to keep pace with a changing environment. A key human dimensions research-based recommendation is that increasing environmental pressures intensify the need to strengthen collaborative and sustained planning and implementation processes.

Fish community composition and diversity at restored estuarine habitats in Tampa Bay, Florida, United States

Estuary restoration in Tampa Bay, Florida, United States, is an ongoing focus of natural resource managers because of pressure from an increasing coastal population, historic habitat loss, and restoration's importance to economic development, recreational activities, and fish habitat. A growing population can also limit future large‐scale restorations due to associations with cost and land availability. This limitation might be overcome by applying the habitat mosaic approach to restoration, which creates distinct habitat types at small spatial scales. This approach was applied to create three types of estuarine habitat, reconnected tidal creek, salt marsh, and tidal pond. The objectives of this study were to (1) initiate monitoring of a restored wetland mosaic and (2) determine how fish diversity and community structure vary among restored habitat types. Replicated sampling using a 3‐mm mesh seine was used to characterize the fish communities. Our results indicate that the habitat mosaic approach creates suitable habitat for a variety of fish species where 37% of fish species were captured in just one habitat type. In particular, the recreationally important Centropomus undecimalis (common snook) was more common in the mangrove‐lined creek and the non‐native Sarotherodon melanotheron (blackchin tilapia) was common in the tidal pond. Greater emphasis should be placed on applied restoration research to identify how habitat types within a larger restoration mosaic contribute to local species diversity and recreationally and commercially important fishes, while limiting non‐natives. This emphasis could reveal how restoration approaches can be modified to include habitat mosaics, maximizing their contribution to productive fish habitat.

Evaluating the U.S. Estuary Restoration Act to inform restoration policy implementation: A case study focusing on oyster reef projects

Recent research revealing the extent of marine habitat degradation has ignited a surge of restoration efforts globally. Restoration of estuarine habitats became a priority in the United States with the Estuary Restoration Act (ERA) of 2000. In the present study, a synthesis of data from the National Estuaries Restoration Inventory (NERI), developed in response to ERA requirements to track and disseminate project data, was conducted in order to analyze U.S. oyster reef restoration efforts. From 2000–2011, more than $45 million was invested in 187 projects to restore over 150 ha of oyster reef habitat, with projects most heavily concentrated in the Chesapeake Bay area and Florida Gulf coast. Trends over time indicate that projects are being implemented at larger scales, increasing from an average of less than 0.4 ha in 2000 to over 1 ha on average in 2011. Costs per unit decreased from an average of more than $2.1 million per ha in 2000 to just over $500,000 per ha in 2011. However, our analysis confirms one major problem hindering the field of restoration ecology: a lack of monitoring data or project-specific assessments of success. Habitat restoration has become an increasingly common effort in the policy sector, and gaps identified through this analysis can help inform future policy making and implementation. Better facilitation of data dissemination and further research on economies of scale in restoration projects are two key areas for improvement. As the field of restoration ecology continues to grow, it is critical that both new and current restoration practitioners, scientists, and decision-makers are able to learn from past projects and apply that collective knowledge to future restoration efforts.

Effects of Social-Ecological Scale Mismatches on Estuary Restoration at the Project and Landscape Level in Puget Sound, USA

Landscape restoration is a global priority as evidenced by the United Nations’ 2020 goal to restore 150 million hectares of land worldwide. Landscape restoration is often undermined by misalignments between governance and environmental systems, often called social-ecological scale mismatches. Despite growing recognition of this problem, few empirical studies focus on scale mismatches in environmental restoration work. In response, this paper analyzes scale mismatches in estuary restoration in a sub-basin of Puget Sound, Washington, U.S.A. I address both the effects of scale mismatch on individual restoration projects and landscape level restoration planning and implementation. I qualitatively analyze 95 semi-structured interviews with participants from 80 governing organizations. My analysis reveals how scale mismatch is a complex social-ecological landscape pattern that affects the flow of financial, human, and natural capital across the landscape. Furthermore, many organizations have limited capacity, which often hampers cross border collaborations that might overcome scale mismatches and further affects how resource are allocated in the region. My findings illustrate why human-environment processes should be included in landscape restoration planning. Social factors are not considered as constraints to restoration, but rather, part of the very landscape fabric to be restored. This represents a new way of thinking about scale mismatch for landscape restoration. Understanding these patterns and processes is essential for a social-ecological approach to landscape restoration that can help create sustainable landscapes and communities.

Social–ecological network analysis of scale mismatches in estuary watershed restoration

Resource management boundaries seldom align with environmental systems, which can lead to social and ecological problems. Mapping and analyzing how resource management organizations in different areas collaborate can provide vital information to help overcome such misalignment. Few quantitative approaches exist, however, to analyze social collaborations alongside environmental patterns, especially among local and regional organizations (i.e., in multilevel governance settings). This paper develops and applies such an approach using social-ecological network analysis (SENA), which considers relationships among and between social and ecological units. The framework and methods are shown using an estuary restoration case from Puget Sound, United States. Collaboration patterns and quality are analyzed among local and regional organizations working in hydrologically connected areas. These patterns are correlated with restoration practitioners' assessments of the productivity of their collaborations to inform network theories for natural resource governance. The SENA is also combined with existing ecological data to jointly consider social and ecological restoration concerns. Results show potentially problematic areas in nearshore environments, where collaboration networks measured by density (percentage of possible network connections) and productivity are weakest. Many areas also have high centralization (a few nodes hold the network together), making network cohesion dependent on key organizations. Although centralization and productivity are inversely related, no clear relationship between density and productivity is observed. This research can help practitioners to identify where governance capacity needs strengthening and jointly consider social and ecological concerns. It advances SENA by developing a multilevel approach to assess social-ecological (or social-environmental) misalignments, also known as scale mismatches.

Morphological process of a restored estuary downstream of a tidal barrier

Hydrodynamic and morphological processes become more complex with large spatial variations after tidal barrier building and estuary restoration. Using a process-based model, responses in the estuary to a two-phase restoration measure in the Shuanglong Estuary are investigated. Numerical modeling indicates that tide-asymmetry in the barraged estuary is the primary factor that determines responses of morphology. After partial absence of tidal flats (first-phase restoration), flood tide-asymmetry is switched to ebb tide-asymmetry in the lower unrestored reach. This induces lower estuary erosion via increased tidal prism, though it is enhanced in the upper widened-deepened restored reach leading to severe siltation. After full restoration (second-phase restoration), current velocities are significantly increased with reduced flood tide-asymmetry. A quantitative comparison of the impact of the cross-sectional profile to net sediment transport shows that a switch from flood-dominated estuary to ebb-dominated estuary can be caused by reshaping the tidal flat which may reduce flood tide-asymmetry. The sediment flushing efficiency after the estuary restoration is further investigated in different sluice discharges with regards to two floodgate operations. Low sluice discharge during ebb tides increases the sediment flushing efficiency, but continuous high sluice discharge contributes to significant improvement of sediment flushing capacity and reduction of flushing duration. We conclude to prevent the flushed sediment from re-deposition into the estuary, a larger flushing capacity discharge released in a short period is required after the second-phase restoration in the Shuanglong Estuary.

An expert panel process to evaluate habitat restoration actions in the Columbia River estuary

We describe a process for evaluating proposed ecosystem restoration projects intended to improve survival of juvenile salmon in the Columbia River estuary (CRE). Changes in the Columbia River basin (northwestern USA), including hydropower development, have contributed to the listing of 13 salmon stocks as endangered or threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Habitat restoration in the CRE, from Bonneville Dam to the ocean, is part of a basin-wide, legally mandated effort to mitigate federal hydropower impacts on salmon survival. An Expert Regional Technical Group (ERTG) was established in 2009 to improve and implement a process for assessing and assigning “survival benefit units” (SBUs) to restoration actions. The SBU concept assumes site-specific restoration projects will increase juvenile salmon survival during migration through the 234 km CRE. Assigned SBUs are used to inform selection of restoration projects and gauge mitigation progress. The ERTG standardized the SBU assessment process to improve its scientific integrity, repeatability, and transparency. In lieu of experimental data to quantify the survival benefits of individual restoration actions, the ERTG adopted a conceptual model composed of three assessment criteria—certainty of success, fish opportunity improvements, and habitat capacity improvements—to evaluate restoration projects. Based on these criteria, an algorithm assigned SBUs by integrating potential fish density as an indicator of salmon performance. Between 2009 and 2014, the ERTG assessed SBUs for 55 proposed projects involving a total of 181 restoration actions located across 8 of 9 reaches of the CRE, largely relying on information provided in a project template based on the conceptual model, presentations, discussions with project sponsors, and site visits. Most projects restored tidal inundation to emergent wetlands, improved riparian function, and removed invasive vegetation. The scientific relationship of geomorphic and salmonid responses to restoration actions remains the foremost concern. Although not designed to establish a broad strategy for estuary restoration, the scoring process has adaptively influenced the types, designs, and locations of restoration proposals. The ERTG process may be a useful model for others who have unique ecosystem restoration goals and share some of our common challenges.

Legal Policy Problems for the Restoration and Sustainable Management of Estuary - Focused on the Law and Policy Case Study concerning the Estuary Restoration and Management in the U.S. -

Legal Policy Problems for the Restoration and Sustainable Management of Estuary - Focused on the Law and Policy Case Study concerning the Estuary Restoration and Management in the U.S. -