Ester Blend Research Articles

Novel Softwood Lignin Esters as Advanced Filler to PLA for 3D Printing.

In this study, we explored the selectivity of softwood lignin toward esterification through chloromethylation. Organosolv pine lignin chloromethylated by a novel greener protocol was subjected to esterification with decanoic acid (C10), tetradecanoic acid (C14), and stearic acid (C18). The success of lignin esterification was confirmed by using FTIR and NMR spectroscopy. For composite preparation, modified lignin was incorporated with PLA in varying proportions (10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%) using the solvent casting technique. The thermal and mechanical properties of the solvent-cast films were analyzed. Notably, lignin esters increased the glass transition temperature (T g) of PLA by a few degrees: tetradecanoic acid (C14) at 30% loading exhibited increases T g from approximately 68 to 72 °C. Mechanical testing showed that blending PLA with lignin and its ester derivatives improves its properties. Pure PLA has moderated ductility and stress but lowered stress levels compared to PLA-lignin ester blends. Adding 30% lignin reduced strength and strain, making the material more brittle. In contrast, the PLA + lignin C14 ester (30%) blend achieved the highest stress and strain, enhancing toughness and strength. This makes lignin C14 ester a promising additive for improving the mechanical properties of PLA in applications requiring greater strength and toughness. The composition with optimum properties was selected for production of the 3D-printing filament. Three extrusion temperatures were evaluated, and the advanced mechanical properties of 3D-printed filament along with surface morphology were analyzed.

Scent-mediated bee pollination and myrmecochory in an enigmatic geophyte with pyrogenic flowering and subterranean development of fleshy fruits.

Volatile emissions from flowers and fruits play a key role in signalling to animals responsible for pollination and seed dispersal. Here, we investigated the pollination biology and chemical ecology of reproduction in Apodolirion buchananii, an African amaryllid that flowers in a leafless state soon after grassland vegetation is burnt in the dry late-winter season. Pollinators were identified through field collection and pollen loads were quantified. Floral traits including spectral reflectance and scent chemistry were documented. Bioassays using cup traps were used to test the function of floral volatiles. Fruiting biology was investigated using controlled hand-pollination experiments and chemical analysis of fruit scent. Seed germination was scored in greenhouse trials. Seed dispersal was monitored using observations and camera trapping. The sweetly scented white flowers of A. buchananii are pollen-rewarding and pollinated mainly by a diverse assemblage of bees. Cup-trap experiments demonstrated that pollinators are attracted to phenylacetaldehyde, the dominant volatile in the floral scent. Plants are shown to be self-incompatible, and the fleshy fruits were found to emerge from the soil six months after pollination during the peak of the summer rains. Fruits emit a diverse blend of aliphatic and aromatic esters and contain large fleshy recalcitrant seeds which germinate within days of fruits splitting open. Seed dispersal by ants was recorded. This first account of the reproductive biology of a species in the genus Apodolirion highlights an outcrossing mating system involving bees attracted to color and scent as well as the unusual fruiting biology and ant-mediated system of seed dispersal.

Impact of Nano-TiO2 Combination with Biodiesel on Diesel Engine Performance and Emissions Under Fuel Magnetism Conditioning

AbstractProblems of atomization, spray, and lower output power are due to the biodiesel’s higher viscosity. All of these aim to encourage fuel magnetism and nanoparticles addition to reduce fuel consumption. Waste cooking oil was converted to methyl ester by transesterification. To make methyl ester blend, diesel and biodiesel were mixed at volume ratio of 20%. TiO2 nanoparticles were added to biodiesel blend B20 at doses of 25 and 50 mg/L. TEM and XRD were used to characterize the nanomaterials. A magnetic coil was placed before the fuel injector to apply a magnetic field on the line of fuel. South pole of the magnetic field is located near to the fuel line, whereas the north pole is located further away. To examine the impact of these nanomaterials with fuel magnetism on engine performance and emissions using WCO biodiesel mixture, an experimental test rig was built connected to diesel engine. During testing, diesel engine operates at 1500 rpm with load variation. The average increases in BTE were 1, 1.5, 3.5, 5.5, and 6.5% but the decreases in BSFC were 1.2, 2, 4, 5, and 6% for B20 + magnet, B20 + 25 TiO2, B20 + 25 TiO2 + magnet, B20 + 50 TiO2, and B20 + 50 TiO2 + magnet, respectively, at engine load range. The average drops in CO, NOx, and HC concentrations were 16, 22, and 33%, respectively, at load range for B20 + 50 TiO2 + magnet. To improve engine performance and reduce emissions, biodiesel blend B20 from waste cooking oil with nanoTiO2 concentration of 50 ppm under magnetic field effect was recommended as a substitute fuel in diesel engine.

Effect of Piston Geometry on Performance Characteristics of VCR Engine with and without EGR when Fueled with Blends of Methyl Ester

The growing population and exhaustion of fossil fuels necessitate our search for new sources of energy. The study for this research encompasses an amalgamation of interest in alternative fuels, advanced engine technology such as variable compression ratio VCR, engine component modification, and a methodical approach to testing for assessing the effects on key performance of the engine. A 3.5 kW compression ignition (CI) engine was fueled with blends of behada, chicken fat, and turmeric oil methyl ester. Engine operating parameters, such as the compression ratio (CR), rate of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), and piston top geometry, are optimized to maximize engine performance. CI engine was modified by changing the piston head (square and tangential groove top) for methyl ester diesel blend operations. In the study, diesel fuel is designated as B00 and methyl ester as B20. The influence of compression ratio (CR16 and CR18) with exhaust gas re-circulation (EGR 0% and EGR 10%) was evaluated. The key performance indicators: brake thermal efficiency (BTE), brake-specific energy consumption (BSEC), brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC), air-to-fuel ratio (AFR), and exhaust gas temperature (EGT) are investigated. Results indicate that an increase in BTE accompanies an increase in load, suggesting enhanced thermal efficiency with increased power output. The consequence of VCR is also investigated, and it is determined that a higher CR results in a higher BTE due to an increase in compression pressure and temperature, thereby enhancing combustion. Due to the re-combustion of unburned hydrocarbons with the addition of EGR at a 10% rate, BTE increases further. Utilizing a piston geometry with tangential grooves and methyl ester blends also contributes to increased BTE. BSEC increases with increasing load, with an important rise observed when operating at maximum capacity. However,at CR 18, BSEC decreases as a result of enhanced combustion efficiency. EGR has different effects on BSEC depending on the geometry of the piston and the kind of fuel used. Enhanced air-fuel blending and re-combustion of unburned hydrocarbons reduce the BSEC of the engine. The tangential groove top piston operates with 10% EGR. Similar to BSEC, BSFC decreases with increasing CR and improves with the use of a piston with a tangential groove and 10% EGR operation. AFR decreases as the consumption of fuel increases to meet the power demand, and higher CR values result in a lower AFR. EGT rises with load, and CR18 has a lower EGT than CR16 as a result of a higher compressing temperature and pressure. 10% EGR operation reduces EGT by decreasing the concentration of oxygen in the combustible area.

Evaluation of performance, emissions and combustion attributes of diesel engines powered by Palmyra biodiesel blends with distinct injection pressures and EGR rates

The present work explores the viability of Palmyra oil methyl ester (POME) as a renewable biodiesel. Initially, oil is extracted from the Palmyra fruit and the oil is transesterified to produce Palmyra oil methyl ester. Preliminary tests were conducted with blends of Palmyra oil methyl esters. From the test results, it was found that the POME20 blend performed better than other blends and was considered as an optimised blend. Secondly, analysis was carried out with POME20 on the CI engine at three injection pressures (210bar, 230bar and 250bar). POME20 at 230bar was shown to have improved thermal efficiency and reduced emissions of CO, HC and CO2 except NOX emissions. Finally, the tests were repeated for optimal conditions of 230bar injection pressure along with 6% and 12% EGR rates. The experimental results revealed that POME20 operated at 230bar 6% EGR rate observed a drastic reduction of NOX by 32.08% and 57.49% compared to diesel and POME20.

Speed of Sound in Hydrocarbon-Fatty Acid Methyl Ester Blends: Experimental Investigation and Combining Rule Development

Speed of Sound in Hydrocarbon-Fatty Acid Methyl Ester Blends: Experimental Investigation and Combining Rule Development

Exploring intermediate temperature reactivity: Experimental and kinetic modeling insights into 50/50% blend of methyl butanoate and methyl crotonate

In this work, an experimental and kinetic modeling study has been conducted to bridge the knowledge gap pertaining to the reactivity of blends of saturated and unsaturated methyl esters at intermediate temperatures. We consider two well-known biodiesel surrogates: the saturated ester methyl butanoate and the unsaturated ester methyl crotonate. These compounds were considered due to the wealth of experimental and modeling data available in the literature for the molecules. We conducted experiments to measure ignition delay times of mixtures of methyl butanoate and methyl crotonate using a Rapid Compression Machine (RCM) across different equivalence ratios (0.5, 1.0, 1.5) and at pressures of 20 and 30 bar. Furthermore, we developed an improved kinetic model that thoroughly validates the newly obtained RCM experimental data for the blend of methyl butanoate and methyl crotonate, in addition to existing experimental studies for the individual components. Present kinetic modeling work involved the incorporation of several new reaction pathways and rates, resulting in improved predictions of combustion characteristics. This study offers insights into the various reaction pathways that influence the reactivity of the blend as well as explains the interactions between methyl butanoate and methyl crotonate based on the underlying kinetics.

Synthesis of wood plastic composite based on flax fibers and sodium silicate/vinyl acetate versatic ester blend

Synthesis of wood plastic composite based on flax fibers and sodium silicate/vinyl acetate versatic ester blend

Performance of jack fruit methyl ester and pine oil blends with coconut shell nanoadditive biodiesel for automobile applications

Performance of jack fruit methyl ester and pine oil blends with coconut shell nanoadditive biodiesel for automobile applications

Performance and Emission Characteristics of a High-Speed Diesel Engine Using a 20% Palm Oil Ester and Ethyl Alcohol Blend

Performance and Emission Characteristics of a High-Speed Diesel Engine Using a 20% Palm Oil Ester and Ethyl Alcohol Blend

Combustion enhancement and emission reduction in RCCI engine using green synthesized CuO nanoparticles with Cymbopogon martinii methyl ester and phytol blends

Cymbopogon martini, also known as Palmarosa, is a grass species in the Cymbopogon genus, native to India and widely cultivated in tropical regions for oil production. Phytol, a constituent of chlorophyll, has garnered attention in the biofuels industry due to its potential for conversion into biodiesel through transesterification. Its abundance and renewable nature underscore its relevance for sustainable development. This study investigates the energy potential of waste Cymbopogon martinii Methyl Ester (CMME) in engine combustion systems using reactivity-controlled compression ignition (RCCI) in a single-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine for low-temperature combustion. The process involves blending low-reactivity fuel (LRF), such as phytol (Acyclic diterpene alcohol and a constituent of chlorophyll), with high-reactivity fuel (HRF), namely CMME, in carefully monitored proportions. CMME25 is used as the primary fuel, supplemented with varying amounts of phytol (10 %, 20 %, and 30 %). Heat release rate (HRR) analysis indicates that phytol improves combustion efficiency up to a 20 % blend in RCCI mode. However, exceeding a 30 % phytol blend reduces brake thermal efficiency (BTE). RCCI mode also shows decreased nitrogen oxide and smoke emissions but increased hydrocarbon (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions. Improved homogeneity and ignition delay result in higher peak pressure and HRR compared to traditional methods. Further investigation focuses on the effects of CuO nanoparticles on a CMME25 and PHY20 % blend in RCCI mode. CuO nanoparticles (50–100 ppm) enhance brake thermal efficiency, improve combustion parameters (ignition delay, HRR, and cylinder pressure), and reduce emissions. The study concludes that a blend of CMME25+PHY20 % with 100 ppm CuO in RCCI mode is a promising alternative to traditional diesel fuel, offering a sustainable and efficient energy solution.

The pyrolytic oil and castor oil methyl ester blend with nano‐additive as fuel in a diesel engine for environmental safety and preservation

AbstractThe increase in the use of plastic products and disposal of the same pose a threat to the world community due to its poor biodegradability. Chemically treating the waste plastic to extract oil and using as the fuel in the form of blends will safeguard the environment. It was observed that viscosity and lubricity of such oils were lower than standard diesel. High Ricinoleic fatty acid ester is added to improve the lubricity of novel pyrolytic blend. Lower blends were prepared for the investigation. Cator ester was added to Pyro‐Diesel along with graphene quantum dot (GQD). The fuel blend is prepared with concentration of 30 ppm GQD nano‐particles. The investigation was made on using CME and PD20 blend. The blend was prepared using Castor oil methyl ester, Pyrolytic oil and nano particle Graphene Quantum Dot (GQD). GQD has extraordinary ecological characteristics such as biocompatibility, large surface area excellent solubility. This combination is a novel work which resulted in reduced emissions. The results reveal that oxides of nitrogen and smoke were increased for all the ternary blends but combustion characteristics improved. The performance of PCD10 (10% CME + 20% Pyro + 70% Diesel) was higher than that of Pyro‐Diesel blend. Hence, ternary blend may be chosen as fuel.

Enhancement of epoxy‐cyanate ester blends through staged curing‐induced nanophase separation strategy

AbstractEpoxy‐cyanate ester blends have attracted significant attention due to their unique synergistic properties and versatility in high‐performance applications. However, achieving precise control over the phase‐separated structures in these blends remains a challenge. In this work, we present a strategy for the preparation of epoxy‐cyanate ester blends with high‐performance through staged curing‐induced phase separation. By incorporating a thermally latent catalyst, 4‐ethyl‐2‐methylimidazole tetraphenylborate, into the epoxy‐anhydride‐cyanate system, the reactivity differences of multiple curing reactions within the blend were precisely controlled, thereby inducing the formation of well‐defined nanophase‐separated structures. The polymer systems prepared exhibit high mechanical properties and heat resistance, primarily due to the interpenetrating networks created by the epoxy‐anhydride‐cyanate ester and the formation of nanodomains induced by the staged curing process. Furthermore, epoxy‐cyanate ester blends demonstrate outstanding hygrothermal resistance due to the low polarity of the crosslinked network structure. This work provides new insights into regulating the microstructure of the thermosetting blends and expands the potential applications of these materials in fields requiring long‐term durability and reliability.

Effect of Anode Interfacial Modification by Self-Assembled Monolayers on the Organic Solar Cell Performance.

A series of self-assembled monolayer (SAM)-based benzoic acid derivatives such as 4-[5'-phenyl-2,2'-bitien-5-yl] benzoic acid (ZE-Ph), 4-[5'-(4-fluorophenyl)-2,2'-bitien-5-yl]benzoic acid (ZE-1F), and 4-[5'-(3,5-difluorophenyl)-2,2'-bitien-5-yl]benzoic acid (ZE-2F) were synthesized to use an interlayer between an ITO electrode and a MoO3 thin film layer in an organic solar cell (OSC) having poly-3 hexylthiophene (P3HT): [6,6]-phenyl C61 butyric acid methyl ester (PC61BM) blend. The work function and surface wetting properties of the ITO were tuned by SAM molecules. The power conversion efficiency of fabricated OSC devices was improved compared to that of the control device from 1.93 to 2.20% and 2.22% with ZE-Ph and ZE-1F-modified ITO electrodes, respectively. The short-circuit current density (Jsc) was increased from 6.16 to 7.10 mA/cm2 and 6.94 mA/cm2 with control, ZE-Ph, and ZE-1F-modified solar cells, respectively. The increase in short-circuit current density (Jsc) shows that the hole-transporting properties between ITO and MoO3 were improved by the use of ZE-Ph and ZE-1F compared with that of the ITO/MoO3 electrode configuration. The open-circuit voltage (Voc) of the SAM-modified ITO-based devices was also improved compared with the Voc of unmodified ITO-based devices. These results show that using a monolayer as an interlayer in OSCs is an important strategy to improve the performance of OSCs. All the device parameters were characterized by Kelvin probe force microscopy, cyclic voltammetry, contact angle, and I-V measurements.

APPLICATION OF DIESEL-RK SIMULATION TOOL FOR REDUCING NOX EMISSION FROM BIODIESEL BLEND FUELS AT RETARDED INJECTION CONDITION

In renewable energy resources, although biodiesels have occupied the top place as an alternative for compression ignition engines, their high NO<sub>x</sub> discharge causes concern. Retarded fuel injection is a probable solution to reduce NO<sub>x</sub> emission. In the present work, tests are conducted with corn seed methyl ester (CSME) blend at standard and retarded fuel injection timings. Improvement in brake thermal efficiency and reduction in NO<sub>x</sub> emissions are observed due to the retardation of fuel injection timing. DIESEL-RK engine simulation software is used as a potential tool to simulate retardation conditions, and simulation results are compared with experimental values. It is seen that along with the performance and combustion parameters, the simulated NO<sub>x</sub> emission results are in good agreement with experimental values. Hence, the modeling used in the DIESEL-RK software captures the experimental observations well.

Investigations in wear and friction behavior of blends of Laxmitaru-FAME with nanoparticles as additives

Blending of biofuels with petro-diesels has become indispensable for environmental conservation, offering considerably enhanced tribological qualities that contribute in power saving along with extension in the lifespan of compression-ignition (CI) engines. The objective of this work is to investigate the tribological features of nanoadditivated Laxmitaru- fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) blends in petro-diesel, by means of a 4-ball tribometer following American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D 4172 standard. The experiments involved B-10 (10 percent biodiesel mixed with petro diesel), B-20 and B-30 variants along with neat petro-diesel. Nano Silicon dioxide (SiO2) was added in varying concentrations of 0.20%, 0.50%, 0.75%, and 1% by weight with Laxmitaru-FAME. The results revealed 75 % decrease in coefficient of friction (COF) and 55% reduction in wear compared to neat diesel (B0). Wear patterns of the experimental spheres were analysed by means of scanning electron microscopy (SEM), which indicated the material insertion and consequential mending on interface by nanoparticles due to highly stable dispersions.

Comparison of Engine Performance and Emissions for W20 and P20 Methyl Ester Blends as Fuel

Demand for energy in transportation, industrial and other energy sectors has led to the huge consumption of fossil fuels. This has directly affected on climatic issues, global warming as well as financial status of a country. In order to reduce these problems biofuels have been used in the engines. The present work reports the performance and emission studies conducted on an engine for W20 (waste cooking oil methyl ester 20% + diesel 80%) blend and P20 (pongamia methyl ester 20% + diesel 80%) blends on volume basis tested on a single cylinder 4-stroke water cooled compression ignition direct injection engine. At 2.2kW engine loading Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE) for W20 and P20 blends are 2.11% and 5.92% lesser than that of diesel fuel. Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) for W20 and P20 blends are 2.386% and 0.198% higher than that of diesel respectively. Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) for W20 and P20 blends are 6.89% and 3.44% greater than that of diesel respectively. Carbon Monoxide (CO) emissions for W20 and P20 blends are 0.046%, 0.04% lower, Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emissions for W20 and P20 blends are 0.33% and 0.18% higher than that of diesel respectively. Hydro Carbon (HC) emissions for W20 blend is 56% higher and P20 blend is 12% lower when compared with diesel. Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) for W20 and P20 blends are 18.87% and 1.72% larger than that of diesel. Therefore, P20 blend fuel is good when compared to W20 blend fuel.

Semiconductor quantum dots as a mechanism to enhance charge transfer processes in polymer solar cells

The light trapping capability of thin film polymer solar absorber, composed of poly (3-hexylthiophene) and [6,6]–phenyl C61- butyric acid methyl ester (P3HT:PC60BM) blend, is improved using ZnS semiconductor quantum dots (QD) as third donor-acceptor (D:A) component. The inherent characteristics of the microwave-assisted synthesized ZnS QD, such as quantum size effect, and multiple exciton generation were leveraged in harvesting high energy photons, which resulted in a better exciton generation, dissociation, and effective charge transport in the polymer medium. The synthesized QD exhibited good phase purity, effective kinetic enhancement, and control of the aggregation process. Hence, the impact of ZnS QD on the performance of thin film polymer solar cells (TFPSC) is evident by a remarkable improvement in the measured photovoltaic parameters. Nonetheless, it is observed that the device performances are generally dependent on the concentration of the QD in the absorber layer. Consequently, the power conversion efficiency has increased by 58% at 3% concentration of QDs by weight. This is an interesting development of TFPSC fabricated under an ambient environment.

Enhancing efficiency and decelerating degradation in bulk heterojunction solar cells with N,N-Dimethylformamide cosolvent for poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-poly(styrenesulfonate)

Focused on the improvement of hole transport layer of organic solar cells based on poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT)/6,6-phenil C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) blend, we studied the possibility of extending the lifetime of these devices. Thus, influence of N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) added to poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiofene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) hole transport layer was analyzed. We report that DMF causes an increase in the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of organic solar cells. A likely reason for this improvement might be a reduced intermolecular distance between the poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiofene): (PEDOT) and poly(styrenesulfonate) (PSS) chains. The optimal volume of DMF in PEDOT:PSS was studied: two parts of DMF to one part of PEDOT:PSS increases PCE by 47%. Furthermore, PEDOT:PSS layer with DMF generated a reduction in the degradation of PCE, extending the lifetime of bulk heterojunction solar cells.

A hybrid RSM-GA-PSO approach on optimization of process intensification of linseed biodiesel synthesis using an ultrasonic reactor: Enhancing biodiesel properties and engine characteristics with ternary fuel blends

The depletion of fossil fuels necessitates the development of sustainable and energy-efficient techniques for biodiesel production. In recent years, cavitation reactors have emerged as a viable alternative to conventional biodiesel synthesis methods due to their superior conversion rates and shorter processing times. These reactors possess a high surface-to-volume ratio and facilitate efficient heat and mass transfer. This study aims to optimize the production of biodiesel from linseed oil using a novel ultrasonic cavitation reactor through a hybrid approach. In order to achieve this, an L50 orthogonal array with five factors and three levels was developed using a Box-Behnken design based on response surface methodology (RSM). These factors included the molar ratio (4:1, 6:1, and 8:1), ultrasonic power (100, 125, and 150 W), temperature (25, 35, and 45 °C), time (3, 6, and 9 min), and ultrasonic frequency (25, 30, and 35 kHz). The parameters were optimized using RSM-based desirability, genetic algorithm (GA), and particle swarm optimization (PSO) approaches. The results indicated that the RSM-based optimization approach outperformed the other methods. The optimal combination of parameters obtained through RSM consisted of molar ratio of 6.58:1, ultrasonic power of 133.65 W, temperature of 37.44 °C, time of 7.71 min, and pulse frequency of 26.29 kHz. This combination resulted in a biodiesel yield of 95.25%. Furthermore, this study explored the impact of different linseed oil methyl ester, octanol, and diesel blends (B10, B20, B30, B10 (O-10), and B20 (O-10)) on engine performance and emission characteristics. The B20 (O-10) blend exhibited significant potential for simultaneously reducing emissions and enhancing engine performance. When used as engine fuel, the B20 (O-10) blend increased brake thermal efficiency (BTE) by 0.848%, decreased brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) by 0.607%, and decreased CO, HC, and NOx emissions by 18.75%, 6.55%, and 0.72%, respectively, compared to pure diesel at rated power.