ESA SMART-1 Mission Research Articles

Laser ablation in a running hall effect thruster for space propulsion

Hall Effect Thrusters (HETs) are promising electric propulsion devices for the station-keeping of geostationary satellites (more than 120 in orbit to date). Moreover, they can offer a cost-effective solution for interplanetary journey, as proved by the recent ESA SMART-1 mission to the Moon. The main limiting factor of the HETs lifetime is the erosion of the annular channel ceramics walls. In order to provide a better understanding of the energy deposition on the insulated walls, a laser irradiation study has been carried out on a PPS100-ML thruster during its run in the PIVOINE-2G ground test facility (CNRS Orleans, France). Two distinct approaches have been followed: continuous wave fiber laser irradiation (generation of thermal defects) and nanosecond pulsed laser ablation (generation of topological defects). The irradiated zones have been monitored in situ by IR thermography and optical emission spectroscopy and further investigated ex situ by scanning electron microscopy and profilometry.

Lunar mare single-scattering, porosity, and surface-roughness properties with SMART-1 AMIE

A novel shadowing and coherent-backscattering model is utilized in the analysis of the single-scattering albedos and phase functions, local surface roughness, and regolith porosity of specific lunar mare regions imaged by the AMIE camera (Advanced Moon micro-Imager Experiment) onboard ESA SMART-1 mission. Shadowing due to the regolith particles is accounted via ray-tracing computations for densely-packed particulate media with a fractional-Brownian-motion interface with free space. The shadowing modeling allows us to derive the scattering phase function for a ∼100-μm volume element of the lunar mare regolith. The volume-element phase function is explained by coherent-backscattering modeling, where the fundamental single scatterers are the wavelength-scale particle inhomogeneities or the smallest fraction of the particles on the lunar surface. The phase function of the fundamental scatterers is expressed as a sum of two Henyey-Greenstein terms, accounting for increased backward scattering as well as increased forward scattering. Based on the modeling of the AMIE lunar photometry, we conclude that most of the lunar mare opposition effect is caused by coherent backscattering within volume elements comparable in size to typical lunar particles, with only a small contribution from shadowing effects.

The C1XS X-ray Spectrometer on Chandrayaan-1

The Chandrayaan-1 X-ray Spectrometer (C1XS) is a compact X-ray spectrometer for the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) Chandrayaan-1 lunar mission. It exploits heritage from the D-CIXS instrument on ESA's SMART-1 mission. As a result of detailed developments to all aspects of the design, its performance as measured in the laboratory greatly surpasses that of D-CIXS. In comparison with SMART-1, Chandrayaan-1 is a science-oriented rather than a technology mission, leading to far more favourable conditions for science measurements. C1XS is designed to measure absolute and relative abundances of major rock-forming elements (principally Mg, Al, Si, Ca and Fe) in the lunar crust with spatial resolution ⩽25 FWHM km, and to achieve relative elemental abundances of better than 10%.

X-ray fluorescence observations of the moon by SMART-1/D-CIXS and the first detection of Ti Kα from the lunar surface

The demonstration of a compact imaging X-ray spectrometer (D-CIXS), which flew on ESA's SMART-1 mission to the Moon ( Racca et al., 2001; Foing et al., 2006), was designed to test innovative new technologies for orbital X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. D-CIXS conducted observations of the lunar surface from January 2005 until SMART-1 impacted the Moon in September 2006. Here, we present scientific observations made during two solar flare events and show the first detection of Titanium Kα from the lunar surface. We discuss the geological implications of these results. We also discuss how experience from D-CIXS has aided the design of a similar instrument (Chandrayaan-1 X-ray Spectrometer (C1XS)) that was launched on the 22nd October 2008 on India's Chandrayaan-1 mission to the Moon.

The in-flight performance of the X-ray Solar Monitor (XSM) on-board SMART-1

The operation, performance, and in-flight calibrations of the X-ray Solar Monitor (XSM) on-board ESA's SMART-1 mission to the Moon are presented. The basic method of deriving the response and effective area of the XSM is described. The evolution of the energy resolution as a function of time is studied, and sample data of high quality broadband solar flare spectra including highly ionized Fe-lines are also presented.

Exploring the Moon in the 21st century

Lunar science is undergoing something of a renaissance. The recent success of ESA's SMART-1 mission, a renewed interest in the USA in returning astronauts to the Moon, and the stated long-term aims of new space-faring nations such as China, India and Japan, have put lunar science back into the limelight. The purpose of this RAS meeting was twofold: first, to inform the UK planetary science community about recent developments in lunar science and, secondly, to demonstrate the high level of interest in lunar science in the UK and highlight opportunities for future involvement.

Smart-1: An analysis of flight data

The main purpose of the ESA SMART-1 mission, (Small Mission for Advanced Research and Technology), is to flight-test a new Primary Electric Propulsion sub-System (EPS), a highly efficient and lightweight propulsion sub-System that will eventually be used for long duration deep-space missions, reducing the size and the cost of the propulsion system while increasing maneuvering flexibility and the mass available for scientific instrumentation. Given the high interest of the mission, two Working Groups, the Plasma Working Group and the EP Working Group have been set up by ESA. This paper presents the evolution of the typical parameters in flight of the EPS, according to the first findings of the EP Working Group. The analysis of the flight data is very useful to better understand the performances of the EPS and to monitor its interaction with the S/C and with the space environment.

Scientific rationale for the D-CIXS X-ray spectrometer on board ESA's SMART-1 mission to the Moon

The D-CIXS X-ray spectrometer on ESA's SMART-1 mission will provide the first global coverage of the lunar surface in X-rays, providing absolute measurements of elemental abundances. The instrument will be able to detect elemental Fe, Mg, Al and Si under normal solar conditions and several other elements during solar flare events. These data will allow for advances in several areas of lunar science, including an improved estimate of the bulk composition of the Moon, detailed observations of the lateral and vertical nature of the crust, chemical observations of the maria, investigations into the lunar regolith, and mapping of potential lunar resources. In combination with information to be obtained by the other instruments on SMART-1 and the data already provided by the Clementine and Lunar Prospector missions, this information will allow for a more detailed look at some of the fundamental questions that remain regarding the origin and evolution of the Moon.

The D-CIXS X-ray mapping spectrometer on SMART-1

The D-CIXS Compact X-ray Spectrometer will provide high quality spectroscopic mapping of the Moon, the primary science target of the ESA SMART-1 mission. D-CIXS consists of a high throughput spectrometer, which will perform spatially localised X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. It will also carry a solar monitor, to provide the direct calibration needed to produce a global map of absolute lunar elemental abundances, the first time this has been done. Thus it will achieve ground breaking science within a resource envelope far smaller than previously thought possible for this type of instrument, by exploiting two new technologies, swept charge devices and micro-structure collimators. The new technology does not require cold running, with its associated overheads to the spacecraft. At the same time it will demonstrate a radically novel approach to building a type of instrument essential for the BepiColombo mission and potential future planetary science targets.

The D-CIXS X-ray spectrometer, and its capabilities for lunar science

The purpose of the D-CIXS (Demonstration of a Compact Imaging X-ray Spectrometer) instrument on the ESA SMART-1 mission is to provide high quality spectroscopic mapping of the Moon by imaging fluorescence X-rays emitted from the lunar surface. In order to obtain adequate statistics for what can be very weak sources, it is essential to have a large effective area, while maintaining a low mass. The solution is to make a thin, low profile detector, essentially a modern version of “X-ray detecting paper”. D-CIXS will achieve a spatial resolution on the ground of 42km from a spacecraft at 300 km altitude, with a spectral resolution of 200 eV or better. The instrument is based around the use of advanced dual microstructure collimator and Swept Charge Device X-ray detector technologies. Swept Charge Device X-ray detectors, a novel architecture based on proven CCD technology, have the virtue of providing superior X-ray detection and spectroscopic measurement capabilities, while also operating at room temperature. Thus we avoid the need for the large passive cooling radiator that was previously required to cool large X-ray focal plane CCDs. The advanced low profile microstructure collimation and filter design builds on expertise developed in solid state and microwave technology to enable us to dramatically reduce the instrument mass. The total mass of D-CIXS, including an X-ray solar monitor is ∼4.6 kg. D-CIXS will provide the first global map of the Moon in X-rays. During normal solar conditions, it will be able to detect absolute elemental abundances of Fe, Mg, Al and Si on the lunar surface, using the on-board solar monitor to obtain a continuous measurement of the input solar spectrum. During solar flare events, it will also be possible to detect other elements such as Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Co, K, P and Na. The global mapping of Mg, Al and Si, and in particular deriving Mg#, the magnesium number (MgO/[MgO+FeO]), represents the prime goal of the D-CIXS experiment.

The D-Cixs X-Ray Spectrometer On Esa's Smart-1 Mission To The Moon

The D-CIXS (Demonstration of a Compact Imaging X-ray Spectrometer) instrument will provide high quality spectroscopic mapping of the Moon, the primary science target of the ESA SMART-1 mission. At the same time it will demonstrate a radically novel approach to building a type of instrument essential for the Mercury cornerstone mission. It consists of a high throughput spectrometer, which will perform spatially localised X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, and a solar monitor to provide the calibration of the illumination necessary to produce a global map of absolute lunar elemental abundances. D-CIXS will provide the first global coverage of the lunar surface in X-rays, providing absolute measurements of Fe, Mg, Al and Si under normal solar conditions and several others during solar flare events. In combination with information to beobtained by the other instruments on SMART-1 and from previous missions, thisinformation will enable a more detailed look at some of the fundamental questions that remain regarding the origin and evolution of the Moon and will help us to map Lunar resources more effectively.

The ESA SMART-1 mission to the Moon with solar electric propulsion

SMART-1 is planned to be the first Small Mission for Advanced Research in Technology of the ESA Scientific Programme Horizons 2000 for a launch at the end of 2001. The mission is dedicated to the testing of new technologies for preparing future cornerstone missions, using Solar Electrical Propulsion in Deep Space. The mission operational lifetime includes a 6–17 months cruise until a lunar orbit (300–10000 km) with 6 month operations. The SMART-1 spacecraft will be launched either on Ariane 5 as auxiliary passenger or on Eurockot. The expected launch mass is 350 kg. This allows to bring a dedicated payload with spacecraft, instrument and electric propulsion diagnostics technologies, as well as giving an opportunity for new lunar geophysical and geochemical studies, and for cruise science on the way to the Moon.