Erythrocyte Viability Research Articles

Unveiling the diverse bioactivity of cobalt oxide nanoparticles produced through carboxymethyl cellulose extraction

This study explores an eco-friendly method for synthesizing Cobalt oxide nanoparticles (Co3O4NPs) using extracted carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) as a reducing and stabilizing agent. The Co3O4NPs, characterized via various analyses, demonstrated a crystalline structure with sizes ranging from 10.9 to 28.2 nm. Microscopic imaging confirmed a uniform spherical morphology with an average diameter of 27.2 nm. The biological activities of Co3O4NPs were investigated extensively, highlighting their superior antibacterial efficacy compared to amoxicillin-clavulanic acid. These nanoparticles exhibited potent antioxidant properties and demonstrated safety for potential applications based on erythrocyte viability results. Additionally, Co3O4NPs displayed significant potency against Michigan Cancer Foundation-7 (MCF-7) breast cancer cells and showed promising α-amylase enzyme inhibitory activity, highlighting their multifunctional therapeutic potential as antioxidant, antibacterial, anticancer, and alpha-amylase inhibition assay.

Triosephosphate isomerase deficiency in an infant

Triosephosphate isomerase deficiency is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by progressive neuromuscular degeneration, seizure, dystonia, weak muscles, cardiomyopathy, hemolytic anemia, and death in early childhood. In the glycolytic pathway, dihydroxy acetone phosphate (DHAP) is converted to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate by an enzymatic reaction. The reaction is catalyzed by the TPI enzyme. In TPI deficiency, erythrocyte viability is reduced due to insufficient anaerobic respiration and DHAP accumulation causes toxic effects on cells. A 2-month-old boy initially presented with infection and moderate anemia. Respiratory distress and neurological symptoms developed shortly thereafter. He was followed up with a mechanical ventilator for a long time. A homozygous pathogenic variant in the TPI1 gene was detected in the genetic analysis performed due to the progressive neurodegeneration and the need of intermittent erythrocyte transfusion in the follow-up. Here, an infant case with triosephosphate isomerase enzyme deficiency is presented.

Evaluation of erythrocyte viability, antioxidant capacity and antiplasmodial activity induced by alkaloid extract of Phyllanthus amarus

Introduction: The production of large amounts of reactive oxygen species in severe malarial infection is due to parasite invasion to erythrocytes. Malaria resistance to medication has left malaria-endemic countries with no alternate source of medications but traditional medicine. One of such plants utilized by traditional healers is Phyllanthus amarus. Therefore, this study aims at ascertaining the antiplasmodial and cytotoxic activities of P. amarus and its specific actions on retaining erythrocyte viability and antioxidant activity. Methods: Antiplasmodial and erythrocyte viability activities were determined in vitro via parasite suppression and tetrazolium-based colorimetric assays, respectively. Antioxidant capacity was determined by measuring extract’s ability to inhibit lipid peroxidation, scavenge 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and superoxide ions, reduce iron(III) ions, and chelate iron in vitro using documented methods. Results: Alkaloid extracts of P. amarus showed great antiplasmodial activity (IC50=0.52μg/mL) and low cytotoxic activity (CC50=54.95 μg/mL). Erythrocyte viability assay showed the minimal impact of the extract on the uninfected erythrocytes but improved viability of the infected RBC in a dose dependent manner, and antioxidant activity manifested mainly in its iron chelating activity (EC50=0.34 μg/mL). Conclusion: This study suggests that the alkaloid extract of P. amarus has significant antiplasmodial and antioxidant activities. These activities promoted the repair of parasite-induced free radical damage to the erythrocyte membrane but distorted the parasites redox balance and defense mechanism, and hence survival rate as indicated by the parasite suppression associated with alkaloid extract treatment of malarial infection.

Marine Algae Extract (Grateloupia Sparsa) for the Green Synthesis of Co3O4NPs: Antioxidant, Antibacterial, Anticancer, and Hemolytic Activities.

The aqueous extract of red algae was used for bio-inspired manufacturing of cobalt oxide nanoparticles (Co3O4NPs) and for antioxidant, antibacterial, hemolytic potency, and anticancer activity. Typical, characterization techniques include UV-Vis, SEM, EDAX, TEM, FTIR, XRD, and TGA. Using an X-ray diffraction assay, the size of the Co3O4NPs crystal was determined to range from 23.2 to 11.8 nm. Based on TEM and SEM pictures, biosynthesized Co3O4NPs' had a homogeneous spherical morphology with a 28.8 to 7.6 nm average diameter. Furthermore, Co3O4NPs biological properties were investigated, including determining the antibacterial potency using the zone of inhibition (ZOI) method and determining the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC). The antibacterial activity of Co3O4NPs was higher than that of the ciprofloxacin standard. Alternatively, scavenging of DPPH free radical investigation was carried out to test the antioxidant capacitance of Co3O4NPs, revealing significant antioxidant ability. The biosynthesized Co3O4NPs have a dose-dependent effect on erythrocyte viability, indicating that this technique is harmless. Furthermore, bioinspired Co3O4NPs effectively against HepG2 cancer cells (IC50: 201.3 μg/ml). Co3O4NPs would be a therapeutic aid due to their antioxidant, antibacterial, and anticancer properties.

HbA2 induction: the merit of pancellularity in sickle cell disease.

HbA2 induction: the merit of pancellularity in sickle cell disease.

Benign Synthesis of Cobalt Oxide Nanoparticles Containing Red Algae Extract: Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, Anticancer, and Anticoagulant Activity

Eco-friendly synthesis of Cobalt oxide nanoparticles (Co3O4NPs) was assessed by the aqueous extract of red algae and their utilization as cytotoxicity, antioxidant, anticoagulant, antibacterial, and anti-cancer properties. UV–vis, SEM, TEM, FTIR, EDAX, XRD, and TGA are tools used for characterization purposes. The size of the Co3O4NPs crystal of 28.2 ± 7.8 nm was measured based on the X-ray diffraction analysis. Biosynthesized Co3O4NPs showed uniform spherical morphology with an average diameter of 29.8 ± 8.6 nm according to TEM and SEM images. Furthermore, Co3O4NPs biological properties such as determination of the antibacterial properties of Co3O4NPs by the zone of inhibition method and the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) were determined using a dilution broth agar test. Co3O4NPs indicated higher antibacterial than oxytetracycline standard antibiotics. On the other hand, a scavenging free radical DPPH study was done to determine the propensity for antioxidants that showed a similar capacity for antioxidants in Co3O4NPs. The biosynthesized Co3O4NPs are effective erythrocyte viability dose-dependently and indicated this method was nontoxic. Moreover, bioinspired Co3O4NPs has promising results against HepG2 cancer cells (IC50: 41.4 μg/ml). Most notably, biogenic Co3O4NPs have anticoagulant and thrombolytic activities by the addition of nanoparticles to human blood samples under practical conditions. According to these context findings, Co3O4NPs would be used as a medicinal aid along with its anti-cytotoxic, antioxidant, and effects on bacteria, and cancer.

Ultrasound-induced molecular delivery to erythrocytes using a microfluidic system.

Preservation of erythrocytes in a desiccated state for storage at ambient temperature could simplify blood transfusions in austere environments, such as rural clinics, far-forward military operations, and during space travel. Currently, storage of erythrocytes is limited by a short shelf-life of 42 days at 4 °C, and long-term preservation requires a complex process that involves the addition and removal of glycerol from erythrocytes before and after storage at -80 °C, respectively. Natural compounds, such as trehalose, can protect cells in a desiccated state if they are present at sufficient levels inside the cell, but mammalian cell membranes lack transporters for this compound. To facilitate compound loading across the plasma membrane via ultrasound and microbubbles (sonoporation), a polydimethylsiloxane-based microfluidic device was developed. Delivery of fluorescein into erythrocytes was tested at various conditions to assess the effects of parameters such as ultrasound pressure, ultrasound pulse interval, microbubble dose, and flow rate. Changes in ultrasound pressure and mean flow rate caused statistically significant increases in fluorescein delivery of up to 73 ± 37% (p < 0.05) and 44 ± 33% (p < 0.01), respectively, compared to control groups, but no statistically significant differences were detected with changes in ultrasound pulse intervals. Following freeze-drying and rehydration, recovery of viable erythrocytes increased by up to 128 ± 32% after ultrasound-mediated loading of trehalose compared to control groups (p < 0.05). These results suggest that ultrasound-mediated molecular delivery in microfluidic channels may be a viable approach to process erythrocytes for long-term storage in a desiccated state at ambient temperatures.

Anaemia in chronic kidney disease - a review

The management of anaemia in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients is a complex, multifaceted process reliant on the administration of exogenous erythropoiesis stimulating agents (ESAs) and iron supplements to ensure the adequate production of viable erythrocytes. Recommended best practice guidelines should be adhered to in order to ensure favourable treatment outcomes whilst minimising the risks often associated with ESA therapy. A paucity in readily available, accurate data makes quantifying the extent to which renal anaemia affects our population and how it is managed challenging, however it is expected to follow international trends. Novel preparations for treating renal anaemia are currently in the clinical trial phase, therefore the potential benefits and risks have yet to be confirmed.

Integrated multi-biomarker responses of juvenile seabass to diclofenac, warming and acidification co-exposure

Pharmaceutical drugs, such as diclofenac (DCF), are frequently detected in the marine environment, and recent evidence has pointed out their toxicity to non-target marine biota. Concomitantly, altered environmental conditions associated with climate change (e.g. warming and acidification) can also affect the physiology of marine organisms. Yet, the underlying interactions between these environmental stressors (pharmaceutical exposure and climate change-related stressors) still require a deeper understanding. Comprehending the influence of abiotic variables on chemical contaminants’ toxicological attributes provides a broader view of the ecological consequences of climate change. Hence, the aim of this study was to assess the ecotoxicological responses of juvenile seabass Dicenthrachus labrax under the co-exposure to DCF (from dietary sources, 500 ± 36 ng kg−1 dw), warming (ΔTºC = +5 °C) and acidification (ΔpCO2 ∼1000 μatm, equivalent to ΔpH = -0.4 units), using an “Integrated Biomarker Response” (IBR) approach. Fish were exposed to these three stressors, acting alone or combined, for 28 days in a full cross-factorial design, and blood, brain, liver and muscle tissues were subsequently collected in order to evaluate: i) animal/organ fitness; ii) hematological parameters and iii) molecular biomarkers. Results not only confirmed the toxicological attributes of dietary exposure to DCF in marine fish species at the tissue (e.g. lower HSI), cellular (e.g. increased ENAs and lower erythrocytes viability) and molecular levels (e.g. increased oxidative stress, protein degradation, AChE activity and VTG synthesis), but also showed that such attributes are altered by warming and acidification. Hence, while acidification and/or warming enhanced some effects of DCF exposure (e.g. by further lowering erythrocyte viability, and increasing brain GST activity and Ub synthesis in muscle), the co-exposure to these abiotic stressors also resulted in a reversion/inhibition of some molecular responses (e.g. lower CAT and SOD inhibition and VTG synthesis). IBRs evidenced that an overall higher degree of stress (i.e. high IBR index) was associated with DCF and warming co-exposure, while the effects of acidification were less evident. The distinct responses observed when DCF acted alone or the animals were co-exposed to the drug together with warming and acidification not only highlighted the relevance of considering the interactions between multiple environmental stressors in ecotoxicological studies, but also suggested that the toxicity of pharmaceuticals can be aggravated by climate change-related stressors (particularly warming), thus, posing additional biological challenges to marine fish populations.

The influence of medium elasticity on the prediction of histotripsy-induced bubble expansion and erythrocyte viability

Histotripsy is a form of therapeutic ultrasound that liquefies tissue mechanically via acoustic cavitation. Bubble expansion is paramount in the efficacy of histotripsy therapy, and the cavitation dynamics are strongly influenced by the medium elasticity. In this study, an analytic model to predict histotripsy-induced bubble expansion in a fluid was extended to include the effects of medium elasticity. Good agreement was observed between the predictions of the analytic model and numerical computations utilizing highly nonlinear excitations (shock-scattering histotripsy) and purely tensile pulses (microtripsy). No bubble expansion was computed for either form of histotripsy when the elastic modulus was greater than 20 MPa and the peak negative pressure was less than 50 MPa. Strain in the medium due to the expansion of a single bubble was also tabulated. The viability of red blood cells was calculated as a function of distance from the bubble wall based on empirical data of impulsive stretching of erythrocytes. Red blood cells remained viable at distances further than 44 µm from the bubble wall. As the medium elasticity increased, the distance over which bubble expansion-induced strain influenced red blood cells was found to decrease sigmoidally. These results highlight the relationship between tissue elasticity and the efficacy of histotripsy. In addition, an upper medium elasticity limit was identified, above which histotripsy may not be effective for tissue liquefaction.

Inhibition of the in vitro growth of Babesia bigemina, Babesia caballi and Theileria equi parasites by trifluralin analogues

Bovine and equine babesiosis caused by Babesia bovis, Babesia bigemina and Babesia caballi, along with equine theileriosis caused by Theileria equi are global tick-borne hemoprotozoan diseases characterized by fever, anemia, weight losses and abortions. A common feature of these diseases are transition from acute to chronic phases, in which parasites may persist in the hosts for life. Antiprotozoal drugs are important for managing infection and disease. Previous research demonstrated that trifluralin analogues, designated (TFLAs) 1–15, which specifically bind to regions of alpha-tubulin protein in plants and protozoan parasites, have the ability to inhibit the in vitro growth of B. bovis. The inhibitory activity of TFLAs 1–15 minus TFLA 5 was tested in vitro against cultured B. bigemina, B. caballi and T. equi. The four TFLAs with greatest inhibitory activity were then analyzed for hemolytic activity and toxicity against erythrocytes. All TFLAs tested in the study showed inhibitory effects against the three parasite species. TFLA 2, TFLA 11, TFLA 13 and TFLA 14 were the most effective inhibitors for the three species tested, with estimated IC50 between 5.1 and 10.1μM at 72h. The drug’s solvent (DMSO/ethanol) did not statistically affect the growth of the parasites nor cause hemolysis. Also, TFLA 2, 13 and 14 did not cause statistically significant hemolytic activity on bovine and equine erythrocytes at 15μM, and TFLA 2, 11 and 13 had no detectable toxic effects on bovine and equine erythrocytes at 15μM, suggesting that these drugs do not compromise erythrocyte viability. The demonstrated ability of the trifluralin analogues to inhibit in vitro growth of Babesia spp. and Theileria equi, and their lack of toxic effects on erythrocytes supports further in vivo testing and eventually their development as novel alternatives for the treatment of babesiosis and theileriosis.

The role of intracellular zinc in H2O2-induced oxidative stress in human erythrocytes

In vitro exposure of human erythrocytes to H2O2 at concentrations of 30–1000 μM resulted in a dose-dependent increase of the intracellular levels of Zn2+ and inhibition of the cytosolic esterase activity, which is a major marker of erythrocyte viability. The observed effect depended on the concentration of H2O2 and the duration of exposure of the cells to this compound. An inverse relationship between the changes in the intracellular level of labile zinc ions and esterase activity in the cells exposed to hydrogen peroxide was detected; this was indicative of the role of Zn2+ in the programmed death of red blood cells. The combined action of hydrogen peroxide and N',N'-tetrakis-(2-pyridyl-methyl)-ethylenediamine, an intracellular zinc ion chelator, has been found to eliminate the cytotoxic effect of H2O2, whereas the addition of Zn2+ to the erythrocyte incubation medium enhanced the effects of hydrogen peroxide. The reduction of the concentration of non-protein thiol groups due to a decrease of the level of reduced glutathione was shown to contribute to the release of Zn2+ from the intracellular binding sites during oxidative stress induced by H2O2 in human erythrocytes.

Irradiation Can Selectively Kill Tumor Cells while Preserving Erythrocyte Viability in a Co-Culture System

An understanding of how to safely apply intraoperative blood salvage (IBS) in cancer surgery has not yet been obtained. Here, we investigated the optimal dose of 137Cs gamma-ray irradiation for killing human hepatocarcinoma (HepG2), gastrocarcinoma (SGC7901), and colonic carcinoma (SW620) tumor cells while preserving co-cultured erythrocytes obtained from 14 healthy adult volunteers. HepG2, SGC7901, or SW620 cells were mixed into the aliquots of erythrocytes. After the mixed cells were treated with 137Cs gamma-ray irradiation (30, 50, and 100 Gy), tumor cells and erythrocytes were separated by density gradient centrifugation in Percoll with a density of 1.063 g/ml. The viability, clonogenicity, DNA synthesis, tumorigenicity, and apoptosis of the tumor cells were determined by MTT assay, plate colony formation, 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU) incorporation, subcutaneous xenograft implantation into immunocompromised mice, and annexin V/7-AAD staining, respectively. The ATP concentration, 2,3-DPG level, free Hb concentration, osmotic fragility, membrane phosphatidylserine externalization, blood gas variables, reactive oxygen species levels, and superoxide dismutase levels in erythrocytes were analyzed. We found that 137Cs gamma-ray irradiation at 50 Gy effectively inhibited the viability, proliferation, and tumorigenicity of HepG2, SGC7901, and SW620 cells without markedly damaging the oxygen-carrying ability or membrane integrity or increasing the oxidative stress of erythrocytes in vitro. These results demonstrated that 50 Gy irradiation in a standard 137Cs blood irradiator might be a safe and effective method of inactivating HepG2, SGC7901, and SW620 cells mixed with erythrocytes, which might help to safely allow IBS in cancer surgery.

Genotoxicity, potential cytotoxicity and cell uptake of titanium dioxide nanoparticles in the marine fish Trachinotus carolinus (Linnaeus, 1766)

Nanoparticles have physicochemical characteristics that make them useful in areas such as science, technology, medicine and in products of everyday use. Recently the manufacture and variety of these products has grown rapidly, raising concerns about their impact on human health and the environment. Adverse effects of exposure to nanoparticles have been reported for both terrestrial and aquatic organisms, but the toxic effects of the substances on marine organisms remain poorly understood. The main aim of this study was to evaluate the genotoxicity of TiO2–NP in the marine fish Trachinotus carolinus, through cytogenotoxic methods. The fish received two different doses of 1.5μg and 3.0μg–TiO2–NPg−1 by intraperitoneal injection. Blood samples were collected to analyze erythrocyte viability using the Trypan Blue exclusion test, comet assay (pH>13), micronucleus (MN) and other erythrocyte nuclear abnormalities (ENA) 24, 48 and 72h after injection. The possible cell uptake of TiO2–NP in fish injected with the higher dose was investigated after 72h using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The results showed that TiO2–NP is genotoxic and potentially cytotoxic for this species, causing DNA damage, inducing the formation of MN and other ENA, and decreasing erythrocyte viability. TEM examination revealed that cell uptake of TiO2–NP was mainly in the kidney, liver, gills and to a lesser degree in muscle. To the extent of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first in vivo study of genotoxicity and other effects of TiO2–NP in a marine fish.

In vitro and in vivo validation of stored swine erythrocyte viability to establish an experimental model of homologous red blood cell transfusion: a pilot study.

Objective To develop experimental models of erythrocyte transfusion, the first step is to ensure the viability of the red blood cells transfused. In this pilot study, we assessed the viability of transfused red blood cells with validation in vitro and in vivo of homologous swine erythrocytes stored for 14 days.Methods Blood collected from one Agroceres® swine was stored in two red blood cell units. In vivo validation was performed by labeling the red blood cells with Na251CrO4 and recovering the viable erythrocytes after 24 hours of infusion in one autologous and four homologous animals. In vitro validation was performed at baseline and after 14 days in sixteen red blood cell units by measuring hemoglobin, hematocrit, hemolysis index and free hemoglobin. A post-mortem splenectomy was performed to evaluate the splenic sequestration of erythrocytes, and the radioactivity of the supernatant samples was counted to evaluate intravascular hemolysis.Results After 14 days of storage, the red blood cell units had lower volumes and equivalent total concentrations of hemoglobin and hematocrit compared to human standards. The free hemoglobin concentration increased from 31.0±9.3 to 112.4±31.4mg/dL (p<0.001), and the hemolysis index increased from 0.1±0.1 to 0.5±0.1% (p<0.001). However, these tests were within the acceptable range for human standards. The percentage of radioactivity in supernatant samples was similar at baseline and after 24 hours, thus excluding significant hemolysis. No evidence of splenic sequestration of radioactive erythrocytes was found.Conclusion Swine red blood cells stored for 14 days are viable and can be used in experimental studies of transfusion. These validation experiments are important to aid investigators in establishing experimental models of transfusion.

Melatonin can attenuate HOCl‐mediated hemolysis, free iron release and heme degradation from hemoglobin

In inflammatory diseases, where hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is elevated, iron homeostasis is disturbed, resulting in iron accumulation. Free iron is toxic since it can lead to generation of other free radicals through the Fenton reaction. Recently, we have shown that HOCl binds to the heme moiety of hemoglobin (Hb) and generates a transient ferric species in which ultimately leads to heme destruction, free iron release and protein aggregation. HOCl is generated by myeloperoxidase, utilizing chloride and hydrogen peroxide as substrates. Melatonin, a neurohormone, has been shown to act as an inhibitor of MPO and is also know to scavenge HOCl. Here we show that HOCl mediated Hb heme destruction can be partially or completely prevented by pre‐incubation of Hb with increasing concentrations of melatonin prior to the addition of HOCl, as judged by UV‐Vis spectrophotometry and in‐gel heme staining. Melatonin also prevented HOCl‐mediated free iron release and protein aggregation. Similarly, pre‐incubation of erythrocytes with increasing concentrations of melatonin prior to the treatment with HOCl prevented HOCl‐mediated loss of erythrocyte viability, indicating the biological relevance of this finding. Melatonin prevents HOCl‐mediated Hb heme destruction by direct scavenging of HOCl or through the destabilization of the higher Hb oxidative states intermediates, ferryl porphyrin radical cation Hb‐Fe(IV)=O+π• (Compound I) and Hb‐Fe(IV)=O (Compound II), that are formed through the reaction of HOCl with Hb. This work also indicates that Hb/melatonin system can function as a catalytic sink for HOCl, establishing a direct mechanistic link between melatonin and its protective effect in chronic inflammatory diseases.Grant Funding Source: NIH

Neuronal Nitric Oxide Synthase (nNOS)/NO, An Accelerator of Melanoma Progression, is a Potential Target for Chemoprevention

Neuronal Nitric Oxide Synthase (nNOS)/NO, An Accelerator of Melanoma Progression, is a Potential Target for Chemoprevention

Erythropoiesis in HIV-infected and uninfected Malawian children with severe anemia

Anemia is common in HIV infection, but the pathophysiology is poorly understood. Bone marrow analysis in 329 severely anemic (hemoglobin <5 g/dl) Malawian children with (n = 40) and without (n = 289) HIV infection showed that HIV-infected children had fewer CD34(+) hematopoietic progenitors (median 10 vs. 15‰, P = 0.04) and erythroid progenitors (2.2 vs. 3.4‰, P = 0.05), but there were no differences in erythrocyte viability and maturation in later stages of erythropoiesis. Despite an HIV-associated reduction in early red cell precursors, subsequent erythropoiesis appears to proceed similarly in HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected children with severe anemia.

Study of the factors influencing the encapsulation of zidovudine in rat erythrocytes

Antiretroviral-loaded erythrocytes offer a promising therapy against HIV owing to their potential to deliver this kind of drugs to macrophages and reticulo-endothelial (RES) tissues. The aim of the present work was to develop and optimize a hypotonic dialysis method for the encapsulation of the antiretroviral Zidovudine (AZT) in rat erythrocytes. The influence of several factors in the encapsulation was also evaluated. Variables such as the initial AZT concentration, the dialysis time, and the dialysis bag/buffer volume ratio exhibited statistically significant differences in the encapsulation of the drug in erythrocytes. The amount of drug encapsulated was related to the different values of the variables by multiple linear regression. Osmotic fragility and haematological parameters were estimated as indicators of erythrocyte viability. No statistically significant differences in the osmotic fragility profiles of the control and carrier erythrocytes were observed, and this parameter was also independent of the dialysis concentration of AZT, the hypo-osmotic dialysis time, and the dialysis bag/buffer volume ratio. The in vitro release of AZT from carrier erythrocytes pointed to a fast leakage of the drug; however, around 30% of the drug remained encapsulated for a prolonged period of time. Pre-dialysis diamide treatment did not have a significant effect on the encapsulation and release of AZT in erythrocytes.

Transfusion medicine and proteomics: an alliance for blood quality and safety.

Transfusion medicine and proteomics: an alliance for blood quality and safety.