Erythemal Exposure Research Articles

Sunburn at the seaside.

The purpose of this paper is to estimate the contribution to our erythemal exposure at the coast of solar ultraviolet (UV) both reflected from, and transmitted into, the ocean. The reflection of solar UV radiation from, and transmitted into, seawater was calculated using a numerical model under a number of atmospheric conditions to estimate erythemal exposure on the skin of supine/prone and ambulant people. The results were expressed as UV Indices. Even under the most extreme insolation with the sun directly overhead, where the ambient UV Index may be around 14, reflected UV from the ocean contributes an erythemal exposure to the skin equivalent to a UV Index of about 0.7. For typical ocean waters, with the sun high in the sky, the UV index within the water is about 7 at a depth of 2m. Whilst our eyes often sense a high level of reflected sunlight from the ocean, especially when the sun is low in the sky, our skin does not share that experience. The reason people get sunburnt at the seaside has more to do with the absence of shade than with reflectance by the water surface or even beach sand.

The Solar Ultraviolet Environment at the Ocean.

Atmospheric and oceanic radiative transfer models were used to compute spectral radiances between 285 and 400 nm onto horizontal and vertical plane surfaces over water. The calculations kept track of the contributions by the sun's direct beam, by diffuse-sky radiance, by radiance reflected from the sea surface and by water-leaving radiance. Clear, hazy and cloudy sky conditions were simulated for a range of solar zenith angles, wind speeds and atmospheric ozone concentrations. The radiances were used to estimate erythemal exposures due to the sun and sky, as well as from radiation reflected by the sea surface and backscattered from the water column. Diffuse-sky irradiance is usually greater than direct-sun irradiance at wavelengths below 330 nm, and reflected and water-leaving irradiance accounts for <20% of the UV exposure on a vertical surface. Total exposure depends strongly on solar zenith angle and azimuth angle relative to the sun. Sea surface roughness affects the UV exposures by only a few percent. For very clear waters and the sun high in the sky, the UV index within the water can be >10 at depths down to two meters and >6 down to 5 m.

Concurrent evaluation of personal damaging and beneficial UV exposures over an extended period

Personal exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation (UVR) is acknowledged as having both positive and negative effects on human health. This study aimed to measure concurrently the personal erythemal UV, UVA and vitamin D effective exposures of participants in each season of a year. Participants were all indoor office workers located at two different sites less than 6.5 km apart at the sub-tropical location of Toowoomba (27°33′S 151°55′E). The subjects wore a combined dosimeter badge horizontally on the shoulder for a minimum of one week in each season; this badge used 8-methoxypsoralen film to record the UVA waveband and polyphenylene oxide film for the erythemal and the vitamin D effective UV wavebands. The results show that median erythemal exposure was highest during the spring and lowest during winter, as was the vitamin D effective exposure. Median UVA exposures were at a similar level in winter and summer, autumn was higher (double) and spring at a lower level. The duration and time of day participants spent outdoors changed in each season; in winter, participants spent an average of 101 minutes outdoors between 10:00–14:00 h over the week, whereas in summer this fell to 79 minutes even though they were outdoors more often. The daily UVA/UVB ratio is lowest between 10:00–14:00 h and also changes with the season resulting in the differences between the distributions of exposure for each of the wavebands. Each category of exposures must be assessed individually as each season and each waveband has different distributions. The results also demonstrate that the dual film dosimeter developed and characterized with a calibration to three different biological responses, is an effective device for the concurrent measurement of erythemal UV, UVA and vitamin D effective UV exposures for periods of up to seven days.

Validation of modeled daily erythemal exposure along tropical and subtropical shipping routes by ship‐based and satellite‐based measurements

AbstractThe Personal ERythemal EXposure (PEREX) model for seafarers working on decks of vessels has been developed to be used for retrospective estimates of personal occupational erythemal exposure in dependence of work profile, time period, and sea route. Extremely high UV index values up to 22 and daily erythemal exposure up to 89 standard erythemal dose have been derived from ship‐based measurements in tropical oceans. Worldwide climatological maps of daily solar erythemal exposure derived from 10 year (2004–2013) hourly grid point radiative transfer model calculations for both cloudless sky and cloudy sky serve as the database of PEREX. The PEREX database is compared with ship‐based measurements taken along four routes of merchant vessels, continuous UV radiation measurements taken on the research vessel Meteor on its mainly tropical and subtropical routes for 2 years, daily cloudless‐sky erythemal exposure derived from 10 min LibRadtran radiative transfer model calculations, and 2 years of satellite‐based erythemal exposure data of the Ozone Monitoring Instrument on the Aura satellite along the ship routes. Systematic differences between PEREX model data, ship‐based data, and satellite‐based daily erythemal exposure for all‐sky conditions are only 1 to 3%, while short‐term variations of cloudiness result in standard deviations of differences around 30%. Measured ratios between cloudless‐sky erythemal radiation at vertical to horizontal incidence decrease with decreasing solar zenith angle, while clouds flatten their diurnal course.

Solar UV Exposure of Seafarers along Subtropical and Tropical Shipping Routes

Seafarers working on decks of vessels at low latitudes are exposed to extremely high solar UV radiation. Their risk of developing skin cancer may be enhanced. Solar erythemal UV irradiance and exposure were measured for the first time on merchant vessels going along typical international routes at low latitudes. The measurements taken at horizontal incidence on the observation deck, and on different parts of the seaman (head, shoulder, chest and back) doing typical outdoor work show the highest portion (40-80% of horizontal exposure) incident on the head. 2years of measurements of solar UV and VIS/NIR irradiance taken on the mast top of the Research Vessel METEOR were added to the data base. Radiative transfer model calculations were performed along all the routes with satellite-based input data of ozone and aerosol for clear sky health-effective radiation including vitamin D3 (VD3). Measured data show extremely high noontime UV index values up to 19 with clear sky, and up to 22 due to cloud scattering. Eight hours erythemal exposure values are more than double of typical midlatitude summer values. Based on the results, an algorithm is presented to derive a seafarer's personal erythemal exposure according to his/her personal record of sea service.

Variations in total ozone column and biologically effective solar UV exposure doses in Bologna, Italy during the period 2005–2010

Variations in total ozone column and sun exposures able to cause erythema and damage the DNA molecules were observed by the narrow-band filter radiometer UV-RAD in Bologna, Italy from 2005 to 2010. The ozone columns determined from the UV-RAD measurements were found to be close to those provided by the satellite Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) showing an average discrepancy of 1% with standard deviation of ± 6%. Analysis of the data highlights a well-marked annual cycle of the ozone column variations while the oscillations with periods of 8, 18 and 34 months present much smaller amplitudes. The influence of the frequency of solar irradiance measurements on the accuracy of the evaluated daily exposure dose has been studied and it was found that time intervals no longer than 5-10 min between the measurements of erythema and DNA damage effective UV irradiances provide a satisfactory assessment of the corresponding daily exposures. The latter do not present significant year-to-year variations for the period under study, while their annual distributions show slight changes likely due to the specific cloud cover and ozone column variability for different years. The annual erythemal exposure dose for 2007-2010 varied between 603.7 and 638.1 kJ m(-2), while the corresponding sun exposure affecting DNA changed from 6.38 to 7.91 kJ m(-2).

The Relationship between the Disability Prevalence of Cataracts and Ambient Erythemal Ultraviolet Radiation in China

In Western countries, ultraviolet (UV)-induced skin cancer has been studied extensively regarding the high incidence of skin cancers in the white population; however, for people of color, cataracts are the main public health issue in relation to increased ambient ultraviolet radiation (UVR). To our knowledge, few studies have been conducted examining the relationship between cataracts and ambient UVR in China. In this study, we aimed to explore the relationship between and the factors influencing the disability prevalence of cataracts and annual ambient erythemal UVR exposure in 31 regions of China. The data used to determine the disability prevalence of cataracts was obtained from the Second China National Sample Survey on Disability. The regional annual erythemal UVR was calculated using Geographic Information System (GIS) methods based on data from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) database. The relationship between the disability prevalence of cataracts and the annual ambient erythemal UVR was examined by using logistic regression. Both the age-standardized disability prevalence of cataracts (OR = 3.97, 95%CI 1.30–12.13, per 100KJ/m2 increase in annual ambient erythemal UVR) and the disability prevalence of cataracts among a population ≥65 years old (OR = 3.97, 95%CI 1.30–12.13, per 100KJ/m2 increase in annual ambient erythemal UVR) were higher in association with higher ambient erythemal UVR. Regions with higher urbanization and educational levels had lower disability prevalence of cataracts. We found positive associations of the age-standardized disability prevalence of cataracts and the disability prevalence of cataracts among a population ≥65 years old with ambient erythemal UVR in 31 regions of China.

FDA-SUNLAMP RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM TIMER INTERVAL AND EXPOSURE SCHEDULE: CONSENSUS ISO/CIE DOSE EQUIVALENCE

The authors compared calculations of sunlamp maximum exposure times following current USFDA Guidance Policy on the Maximum Timer Interval and Exposure Schedule, with USFDA/CDRH proposals revising these to equivalent erythemal exposures of ISO/CIE Standard Erythema Dose (SED). In 2003, [USFDA/CDRH proposed replacing their unique CDRH/Lytle] erythema action spectrum with the ISO/CIE erythema action spectrum and revising the sunlamp maximum exposure timer to 600 J m(-2) ISO/CIE effective dose, presented as being biologically equivalent. Preliminary analysis failed to confirm said equivalence, indicating instead ∼38% increased exposure when applying these proposed revisions. To confirm and refine this finding, a collaboration of tanning bed and UV lamp manufacturers compiled 89 UV spectra representing a broad sampling of U.S. indoor tanning equipment. USFDA maximum recommended exposure time (Te) per current sunlamp guidance and CIE erythemal effectiveness per ISO/CIE standard were calculated. The CIE effective dose delivered per Te averaged 456 J(CIE) m(-2) (SD = 0.17) or ∼4.5 SED. The authors found that CDRH's proposed 600 J(CIE) m(-2) recommended maximum sunlamp exposure exceeds current Te erythemal dose by ∼33%. The current USFDA 0.75 MED initial exposure was ∼0.9 SED, consistent with 1.0 SED initial dose in existing international sunlamp standards. As no sunlamps analyzed exceeded 5 SED, a revised maximum exposure of 500 J(CIE) m(-2) (∼80% of CDRH's proposal) should be compatible with existing tanning equipment. A tanning acclimatization schedule is proposed beginning at 1 SED thrice-weekly, increasing uniformly stepwise over 4 wk to a 5 SED maximum exposure in conjunction with a tan maintenance schedule of twice-weekly 5 SED sessions, as biologically equivalent to current USFDA sunlamp policy.

Sunlight, hormone replacement status and colorectal cancer risk in postmenopausal women

A reanalysis of the Women's Health Initiative (WHI) randomized clinical trial found a significant interaction between supplementation with vitamin D/calcium and estrogen therapy and the risk of colorectal cancer risk, with reduced risks from supplementation limited to the placebo arms of the estrogen trials. To explore whether the vitamin D effects are modified by estrogen therapy, we report a largely cross-sectional, analysis of the association between sun exposure, which is an important vitamin D source, and colorectal cancer risk among postmenopausal women in the U.S. Radiologic Technologists study. Among 21,695 participants, there were a total of 108 cases. Sun exposure was based on time outdoors and on ambient ultraviolet radiation (UV) exposure based on residence linked to erythemal exposures derived from the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer database. Although there was no relationship between outdoor time or ambient UV measure and colorectal cancer risk in current hormone replacement therapy (HRT) users, in never/past HRT users, there was an inverse association with higher ambient UV exposure, RR for highest vs. lowest tertile = 0.40; 95% CI 017, 0.93; p for trend = 0.04. Non-significant lower risks were also associated with higher levels of outdoor time (> or = 3.5 hr/week) in never/past HRT users. The interaction between both indicators of sun exposure and HRT and CRC risk was not significant. These data, although exploratory, are consistent with evidence from the WHI suggesting a decrease in colorectal cancer risk may be associated with vitamin D exposure among postmenopausal women who are not taking HRT, but not among current HRT users.

Measurements of UV radiation on rotating vertical plane at the ALOMAR Observatory (69° N, 16° E), Norway, June 2007

Abstract. Erythemaly weighted UV and total UV-A irradiance measured at the ALOMAR (Arctic Lidar Observatory for Middle Atmosphere Research; 69° N, 16° E) in June 2007 by two Kipp &amp;amp; Zonen UV broadband meters type, UV-S-EA-T, are examined. One unit is mounted on rotating vertical plane and the other is permanently fixed horizontally. The UV broadband meters measure simultaneously to compare UV irradiances on vertical and horizontal planes. The entire range of such relative exposure variations during clear-sky and overcast conditions over ALOMAR in the period March–June 2007 is examined using STAR and Radonic1 model (developed at the Meteorological Institute, University of Munich) for various action spectra: erythema, UV-A, and vitamin D3. The model and observations support that the daily means of relative exposures are quite stable, i.e., vary within the range 0.4–0.6 with the mean around 0.5 when the averaged intra-day, day-to-day, and seasonal changes of the relative erythemal exposures are considered. It seems that multiplication of the daily mean dose from a broadband meter placed horizontally by the factor of 0.5 gives reasonable estimation of the daily mean exposure on a vertically oriented receiver randomly oriented towards the Sun. The model studies during clear-sky conditions show that the extreme value and daily variability of relative exposure are the highest for UV-A, next for erythemal UV, then for vitamin D3 weighed UV irradiance. The minima of relative exposure (~0.20–0.30) are almost the same for all weighting functions. The comparison of model simulations and measurements suggests that specific cloud configuration could lead to significant enhancement of UV exposure of rotating receiver.

Influence of summer daylight saving time on scattered erythemal solar ultraviolet exposures

The research question of whether there are any influences in the scattered or diffuse erythemal UV exposures to a horizontal plane over a five month period due to the change from standard time to daylight saving time, has been investigated by using physical measurements and applying them to both standard time and daylight saving time. The diffuse erythemal UV was considered for fixed lunch break times and fixed morning and afternoon break times. The cases considered were for groups of the population who are predominantly indoors and who spend their break times outdoors in shade. The biggest influence on the diffuse UV exposures of changing to daylight saving time is the timing of the outdoor meal and break times. The change causes a reduction in diffuse erythemal exposure for early or morning breaks and an increase in the diffuse erythemal exposure for late or afternoon breaks. Similarly, for the lunch break times, the changes in exposure are influenced by the timing of the break with respect to solar noon. Indoor workers who take their breaks outside in a shaded area may have a change in their exposure to diffuse UV due to a shift to daylight saving time, however the magnitude of this change and whether it is a positive or negative change in exposure will depend on the timing of the break. The increase in diffuse UV exposure due to the afternoon break may be negated by the decrease in exposure due to the morning break. In this case, the effect on diffuse UV exposures due to changing to daylight saving time will be minimal.

A Behavioral Model for Estimating Population Exposure to Solar Ultraviolet Radiation†

Determining the variability of solar UV exposure of different members of a population by direct measurement demands high compliance over an extended period of time by a large number of people. An alternative approach is to model the variables that affect personal exposure and this is the basis of the method reported here, which uses a random sampling technique to explore variability of exposure at different times of the year by habitués. It is shown that there are large variations in daily personal erythemal exposure, more so for indoor workers living in northern Europe than those resident in Florida, which are due not only to seasonal changes in ambient, but just as importantly to seasonal variation in behavior. Not surprisingly, holiday and summer weekend exposure account for the largest daily UV doses. Northern Europeans who take their summer vacation in Florida can double their exposure during this period compared with holidaying at home and this illustrates just how important sun protection measures should be during recreational exposure in areas of high insolation if the annual UV burden is to be sensibly controlled.

Exposure of Arctic Field Scientists to Ultraviolet Radiation Evaluated Using Personal Dosimeters

During July 2000 we used an electronic personal dosimeter (X-2000) and a biological dosimeter (Deutsches Zentrum fur Luft- und Raumfahrt: Biofilm) to characterize the UV radiation exposure of arctic field scientists involved in biological and geological fieldwork. These personnel were working at the Haughton impact structure on Devon Island (75°N) in the Canadian High Arctic under a 24 h photoperiod. During a typical day of field activities under a clear sky, the total daily erythemally weighted exposure, as measured by electronic dosimetry, was up to 5.8 standard erythemal dose (SED). Overcast skies (typically 7–8 okta of stratus) reduced exposures by a mean of 54%. We estimate that during a month of field activity in July a typical field scientist at this latitude could potentially receive ∼80 SED to the face. Because of body movements the upper body was exposed to a UV regimen that often changed on second-to-second timescales as assessed by electronic dosimetry. Over a typical 10 min period on vehicle traverse, we found that erythemal exposure could vary to up to 87% of the mean exposure. Time-integrated exposures showed that the type of outdoor field activities in the treeless expanse of the polar desert had little effect on the exposure received. Although absolute exposure changed in accordance with the time of day, the exposure ratio (dose received over horizontal dose) did not vary much over the day. Under clear skies the mean exposure ratio was 0.35 ± 0.12 for individual activities at different times of the day assessed using electronic dosimetry. Biological dosimetry showed that the occupation was important in determining daily exposures. In our study, scientists in the field received an approximately two-fold higher dose than individuals, such as medics and computer scientists, who spent the majority of their time in tents.

Influence of solar UVA on erythemal irradiances

Many materials in everyday use such as window glass in homes and offices, glass in sunrooms and greenhouses, vehicle glass and some brands of sunscreens act as a barrier to the shorter UVB wavelengths while transmitting some of the longer UVA wavelengths. This paper reports on the erythemal exposures due to the UVA waveband encountered over a 12-month period for a solar zenith angle (SZA) range of 4° to 80° and the resulting times required for an erythemal exposure of one standard erythemal dose (SED) due to the erythemal exposures to the UVA wavelengths. The minimum time for an exposure of one SED due to the UVA wavelengths in winter is approximately double that what it is in summer. The time period of 40 to 60 min was the most frequent length of time for an exposure of one SED with 60 to 80 min the next frequent length of time required for a one SED exposure.

Pre‐vitamin D3 effective ultraviolet transmission through clothing during simulated wear

Clothing is an important protective layer used to reduce ultraviolet (UV) exposures to the skin surface. However, not all UV exposure is linked to detrimental health effects with some exposure to UVB wavelengths below 316 nm required for the synthesis of pre-vitamin D(3). The aim of the current research was to investigate the effect of fabric type, color, fit, and wetness on the transmission of pre-vitamin D(3) effective UV through garments during simulated wear, in a high UV exposure environment. Dosimeters fabricated from polysulfone film were positioned at eight selected body sites on the skin surface and clothing surface of identically designed, loose and fitted, black and white T-shirts made up in two knitted fabric types and tested when both dry and when drying after initial wetting (n=3 replicates). The T-shirts were placed on manikins set to simulate humans in the sun between 09:30 and 12:30 Eastern Standard Time during the Southern Hemisphere summer period. The post-exposure absorbance was measured and the dosimeters were calibrated for biologically effective UV for pre-vitamin D(3) synthesis with a UV spectroradiometer. The effect of fit, fabric type, color, and wetness on pre-vitamin D(3) effective UV transmission during simulated wear was assessed. Irradiances varied among body sites with the highest erythemal exposures to a horizontal plane over the 3 h period reaching approximately 14.5 minimal erythema dose (MED) while the highest exposure under the garment was 0.22 MED which may not be above the threshold for pre-vitamin D(3) synthesis for the time period investigated. Fabric and fit were the main variables affecting transmission of pre-vitamin D(3) effective UV. Some interactions were identified between the fabric color and wetness and between fabric type and color; however, while significantly modifying transmission these effects were small. Transmission of pre-vitamin D(3) effective UV occurred through the high UPF knitted fabrics investigated. However, the length of exposure will influence whether the irradiances are sufficient to be above the threshold for pre-vitamin D(3) synthesis. The main effect on transmission of pre-vitamin D(3) effective UV was the fit of the T-shirt and its fabric type (probably structure) rather than color or degree of wetness.

Melanoma and lifetime UV radiation

Because most risk factors for melanoma are immutable constitutional factors such as skin type, it is important to more fully understand the relationship between melanoma risk and sun exposure, one of the few modifiable risk factors for the disease. The goal of this case-control study was to quantify the risks of melanoma associated with UV exposure at different periods of life. Cases were 386 patients between the ages of 35 and 74 who were diagnosed with primary cutaneous melanoma within the Seattle-Puget Sound area during 1997. Controls were 727 participants of the same age and geographic area, selected by random-digit dialing. A telephone interview included a complete residential history, lifetime sun exposure history (days in the summer sun for at least 4 h at each place of residence), and personal characteristics. UV exposure was calculated based on satellite data on potential erythemal exposure at each place of residence, years at each location and time spent in the sun at each location. Logistic regression was used to estimate odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) reflecting the risk of melanoma associated with UV exposure, after adjustment for age, sex, income, tendency to burn and sunburns during ages 2-10. Among women, lifetime UV exposure was associated with melanoma risk (adjusted OR = 1.99 for highest versus lowest quartile, 95% CI: 0.95-3.03, p for trend = 0.008). There were significant trends for UV exposure during ages 1-10, 11-20 and 31-40 (all p < 0.02). Among men, there were no significant associations at any time period, but lifetime UV exposure was associated with higher risk for men who had a tendency toward severe or painful sunburns (OR = 2.85 for highest versus lowest quartile, 95% CI: 0.84-9.64, p for trend = 0.04). The differing results by sex are not easily interpretable, though it may be useful to target those with a higher sensitivity to the sun when formulating messages for prevention of melanoma by lowering exposure to UV.

Personal solar UV Exposure Measurements Employing Modified Polysulphone with an Extended Dynamic Range†¶

ABSTRACTPolysulphone dosimeters using a simple to use filter have been developed and tested to provide an extended dynamic measurement range of personal solar W exposures over an extended period (3 to 6 days). At a Southern Hemisphere subtropical site (27.6°S, 151.9°E), the dynamic range of the filtered polysulphone allowed measurements of erythemal exposures to approximately 100 minimum erythemal dose (MED) for a change in optical absorbance at 330 nm (AA330) of 0.35. In comparison, unfiltered polysulphone dosimeters were exposed to approximately 8 MED for the same AA330. The error associated with the use of the filtered polysulphone dosimeters is of the order of ±15%, compared with ±10% of the unfiltered variety. The developed filtered polysulphone dosimeter system allowed the measurement of erythemal UV exposures over 3 to 6 days at a subtropical site without the need to replace the dosimeters because of saturation. The results show that longer‐term measurement programs of personal solar UV have been made more feasible with the use of these polysulphone dosimeters with an extended dynamic range compared with unfiltered polysulphone dosimeters.

Lower body anatomical distribution of solar ultraviolet radiation on the human form in standing and sitting postures

Humans undertake their daily activities in a number of different postures. This paper aims to compare the anatomical distribution of the solar erythemal UV to human legs for standing and sitting postures. The exposure ratios to the legs (ratio of the UV exposure to a particular anatomical site compared to the ambient) have been measured with UV dosimeters for standing and sitting postures of a manikin. The exposure ratios for the legs ranged from 0 to 0.75 for the different anatomical sites for the sitting posture in summer (December through February) compared to 0.14 to 0.39 for the standing posture. In winter (June through August) the exposure ratios ranged from 0.01 to 0.91 for sitting to 0.17 to 0.81 for standing. For the anterior thigh and shin, the erythemal UV exposures increased by a factor of approximately 3 for sitting compared to standing postures. The exposure ratios to specific anatomical sites have been multiplied by the ambient erythemal UV exposures for each day to calculate the annual exposures. The annual erythemal exposures to the anterior thigh and ankle were predicted to be higher than 800 MED for humans sitting outdoors each day between noon and 13:00 h Australian Eastern Standard Time (EST). For humans standing outdoors during this time, the annual erythemal UV exposure averaged over each leg site was 436 MED, whereas, the averaged annual erythemal UV exposure was 512 MED for the sitting posture. Similarly, the annual erythemal UV exposure averaged over each of the sites was 173 MED for humans standing outdoors between 09:00 h EST and noon each Saturday morning and 205 MED for humans sitting outdoors during this time. These results show that there is increased risk of non-melanoma skin cancer and malignant melanoma to the lower body if no UV preventative strategies are employed while in a sitting posture compared to a standing posture.

Monitoring of erythemal irradiance in the Argentine ultraviolet network

The Ultraviolet (UV) Monitoring Network of the Argentine Servicio Meteorológico Nacional (National Weather Service) consists at present of nine stations from 22° to 64° latitude south equipped with biometers, broadband instruments that measure the erythemal irradiance. After a complete calibration of the instruments and reprocessing of the database a preliminary climatology of erythemal irradiance and erythemal exposure was built by analyzing the data of the first 2–4 years for each station. The influence of the measurement interval on the UV Index is quantified. A tropical high‐altitude station in the Andean Altiplano reaches top UV Index values of 20 and daily doses of 10.6 kJ/m2, among the highest UV levels worldwide. Characteristic UV lndex and erythemal exposure in the central, most populated areas of Argentina are similar to those in other Southern Hemisphere stations and are higher than in comparable latitude regions of the Northern Hemisphere. The southern stations in the UV network are often affected by the Antarctic ozone hole. By comparing clear‐sky irradiance measurements with aerosol‐free radiative transfer calculations using the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer surface albedo climatology, typical attenuations from 2 to 15% due to aerosols were determined, reaching maxima of 30% at urban locations. On the other hand, increases of ∼3–6% due to higher surface albedo were obtained for snow‐free conditions, and increases up to 15% were obtained for snow‐covered terrain.

Spectral ultraviolet albedo of roofing surfaces and human facial exposure

Spectral field measurements were used to quantify the ultraviolet (UV) spectral albedos of four different metallic roofing surfaces. The effect of the albedos of two of these surfaces on erythemal exposure to human facial anatomical sites was quantified by UV dosimetry. The albedos of all roofing surfaces were greater than the albedo of grass. Little SZA dependence was observed for any of the surfaces. The albedos of the coloured metallic corrugated surfaces were strongly dependent on wavelength in the UVA, increasing from 3 to 12%. Facial erythemal measurements showed significant exposure enhancements over the galvanised corrugated surface compared to grass. The undersides of the chin and nose received exposure enhancements over the galvanised corrugated surface of about 1290 and 190%, respectively, of the exposure of these sites over grass. It is concluded that the albedo of the galvanised surfaces are higher than those of the coloured surfaces by at least 20%, and higher than grass by at least 27%. Consequently, normally shaded facial anatomical sites receive substantially higher UV exposures over these galvanised surfaces compared to grass.