Errors In Young Children Research Articles

Characteristics of refractive development in children aged 4 months to 8 years in urban China: A retrospective screening analysis.

To conduct a large retrospective study of screening refractive error in young children. This retrospective study included children aged from 4 months to 8 years in Daxing District, Beijing, who underwent refractive examinations without cycloplegia. It included a cross-sectional assessment of refractive error screening for all children, and a longitudinal component for a subgroup with data available for two to five visits. A total of 14,987 children were included in the cross-sectional study. In the group <1 year of age, the percentage of children with a spherical equivalent (SE) >+2.00 D or with cylinder <-1.50 D was 15.25% and 33.24%, respectively. These were significantly higher than for the 1- to 4-year-old group (SE 8.1% higher, cylinder 13.2% higher) (χ2 = 53.57, p < 0.001; χ2 = 790.39, p < 0.001). Furthermore, 34.83% of children in the 0-year-old group had amblyopia risk factors (ARFs). In the 4-year-old group, boys had a significantly longer axial length (AL) than girls (differences in the right and left eyes were 0.53 and 0.56 mm, respectively; z = 5.48 p < 0.001, z = 5.80, p < 0.001). AL increased with age, while the AL difference between boys and girls remained stable at 4-8 years of age. The percentage of children aged 5-8 years with myopia in 2020-2021 was significantly higher than that in 2018-2019 (H = 12.44, p = 0.006). In the longitudinal study of 4406 children (up to 12-month follow-up), annual changes in SE were -0.27, -0.06, 0.19 and 0.13 D between 0 and 3 years, and -0.38, -0.58, -0.70 and -0.75 D between 5 and 8 years. Children's refractive error varied significantly from ages 4 months to 1 year, with a high proportion having ARFs. Children aged 5-8 years showed a trend towards myopia. The prevalence of myopia in the cross-sectional analysis in 2020-2021 was greater than in 2018-2019. Screening refraction changed minimally over a 12-month period for children aged 1-3 years, but became more myopic for children aged 5-8 years.

Does Foveal Hypoplasia Affect Emmetropization in Patients with Albinism?

(1) Background: The aim of the study was to describe refractive development from early childhood to adulthood in Danish patients with albinism and to evaluate the effect of foveal developmental stage on refractive development; (2) Methods: Patients with a clinical diagnosis of ocular or oculocutaneous albinism were invited for a refractive evaluation and comprehensive phenotyping including macular optical coherence tomography (OCT) scans. Foveal hypoplasia was graded based on OCT from 0 (normal) to 4 (absence of any signs of foveal specialization). Medical files were reviewed for historical refractive values in individual patients; (3) Results: Hyperopia (spherical equivalent refraction (SEQ) of ≥+1 Diopter (D)) was common in both children (81.3%) and adults (67.1%). The lower prevalence of hyperopia in adults was predominantly explained by increasing astigmatism with age. Emmetropization (>2D change from before 3 years to adolescence) was seen in 22.2%. There was no influence on foveal hypoplasia grade on the degree of refractive errors throughout life; (4) Conclusions: We found that emmetropization was uncommon in Danish patients with albinism and that the degree of foveal developmental stage did not influence emmetropization or the distribution of refractive errors. High degrees of hyperopia and astigmatism were common. These results indicate that fear of impeding emmetropization should not refrain the clinician from providing adequate correction for refractive errors in young children with albinism.

Automated screening devices for vision screening in preschool children: A comparison of the PlusoptiX S12C photoscreener and retinomax K+3 autorefractor.

Automated vision screening devices such as photoscreeners and autorefractors have been used to accurately identify amblyopia, refractive amblyopia risk factors (ARFs), and refractive error in young children; however, there is conflicting data about the effectiveness of different screening devices. We compared the performance of two commercially available screening devices in preschool children. Children aged 3 to 5 years attending 5 preschools in Anaheim Elementary School District were screened with the PlusoptiX S12C photoscreener using ROC 3 referral criteria and Retinomax K+3 autorefractor in March 2022. Screened children were offered free cycloplegic eye examinations performed by optometrists on the UCI EyeMobile for Children mobile clinic. Children were evaluated for the presence of refractive ARFs using 2021 American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus age-based referral criteria guidelines for instrument-based screening. A total of 158 children were screened and 79 children received cycloplegic examinations. At least one refractive ARF was found in 20% of examined children, corresponding to a sensitivity/specificity/positive predictive value (PPV)/negative predictive value (NPV) of 94%/89%/68%/98% for the PlusoptiX and 100%/65%/42%/100% for the Retinomax. In detecting refractive ARFs, the PlusoptiX was found to have a higher specificity and PPV while the Retinomax had a higher sensitivity and NPV. While both devices demonstrated a high sensitivity and NPV, we found that the PlusoptiX performed better overall as a screening device for our program as the Retinomax referred too many children.

Systematic review and meta-analysis on the agreement of non-cycloplegic and cycloplegic refraction in children.

To determine the diagnostic agreement of non-cycloplegic and cycloplegic refraction in children. The study methodology followed Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Electronic databases were searched for comparative studies exploring refraction performed on children under non-cycloplegic and cycloplegic conditions. There was no restriction on the year of publication; however, only publications in the English language were eligible. Inclusion criteria consisted of children aged ≤12 years, any degree or type of refractive error, either sex and no ocular or binocular co-morbidities. The QUADAS-2 tool was used to evaluate the risk of bias. Meta-analysis was conducted to synthesise data from all included studies. Subgroup and sensitivity analyses were undertaken for those studies with a risk of bias. Ten studies consisting of 2724 participants were eligible and included in the meta-analysis. The test for overall effect was not significant when comparing non-cycloplegic Plusoptix and cycloplegic autorefractors (Z = 0.34, p = 0.74). The pooled mean difference (MD) was -0.08 D (95% CI -0.54 D, +0.38 D) with a prediction interval of -1.72 D to +1.56 D. At less than 0.25 D, this indicates marginal overestimation of myopia and underestimation of hyperopia under non-cycloplegic conditions. When comparing non-cycloplegic autorefraction with a Retinomax and Canon autorefractor to cycloplegic refraction, a significant difference was found (Z=9.79, p < 0.001) and (Z=4.61, p < 0.001), respectively. Non-cycloplegic Plusoptix is the most useful autorefractor for estimating refractive error in young children with low to moderate levels of hyperopia. Results also suggest that cycloplegic refraction must remain the test of choice when measuring refractive error ≤12 years of age. There were insufficient data to explore possible reasons for heterogeneity. Further research is needed to investigate the agreement between non-cycloplegic and cycloplegic refraction in relation to the type and level of refractive error at different ages.

Neural Basis of Scale Errors in Young Children

ABSTRACT In this study, we examined whether 2-and 3-year-old children exhibited activation in the dorsolateral and ventrolateral prefrontal regions while engaging in a tool-based scale error task as measured by near-infrared spectroscopy. Results revealed no significant differences in the prefrontal activation between children who produced scale errors and those who did not. However, we found significant activations of the prefrontal region during scale error sessions compared to free play sessions. Our results do not deny that the activation of prefrontal regions may, at least in part, be associated with children’s scale error.

Changes in Ocular Growth after Pediatric Cataract Surgery.

The human eye undergoes extensive changes during early childhood, including axial elongation, corneal flattening and reduced lens power. Animal studies have shown that removing the crystalline lens during infancy retards axial elongation. Axial elongation has been studied in children after cataract extraction both directly and indirectly. Children with a unilateral congenital cataract generally have a shorter axial length in their cataractous eye than in their fellow eye. This difference usually persists after cataract surgery. While some studies have reported a modest reduction in axial elongation after cataract extraction, the magnitude of this effect is much less than what has been reported in animal models. Choosing an intraocular lens (IOL) power for implantation into a child's eye is complicated by continued ocular growth, the inaccuracy of IOL power calculation formulas for small eyes, and the difficulty of accurately measuring the biometrics of a child's eye. In addition, given the fixed position of an IOL in the eye, increasing elongation of the posterior segment of the eye relative to the anterior segment magnifies the myopic shift that occurs with ocular growth. The targeted refractive error in young children undergoing IOL implantation should be an undercorrection in anticipation of a future myopic shift.

An Elicited-Production Study of Inflectional Verb Morphology in Child Finnish.

Many generativist accounts (e.g., Wexler, 1998) argue for very early knowledge of inflection on the basis of very low rates of person/number marking errors in young children's speech. However, studies of Spanish (Aguado-Orea & Pine, 2015) and Brazilian Portuguese (Rubino & Pine, 1998) have revealed that these low overall error rates actually hide important differences across the verb paradigm. The present study investigated children's production of person/number marked verbs by eliciting present tense verb forms from 82 native Finnish-speaking children aged 2;2-4;8years. Four main findings were observed: (a) Rates of person/number marking errors were higher in low-frequency person/number contexts, even excluding children who showed no evidence of having learned the relevant morpheme, (b) most errors involved the use of higher frequency forms in lower frequency person/number contexts, (c) error rates were predicted not only by the frequency of person/number contexts (e.g., 3sg>2pl) but also by the frequency of individual "ready-inflected" lexical target forms, and (d) for low-frequency verbs, lower error rates were observed for verbs with high phonological neighborhood density. It is concluded that any successful account of the development of verb inflection will need to incorporate both (a) rote-storage and retrieval of individual inflected forms and (b) phonological analogy across them.

유아 수세기(counting)에 관한 국내 연구동향 분석

The purpose of this study was to look into trends in research concerned with children's counting in Korea. A total of 59 studies on counting including journal articles, master's & doctoral theses were analyzed in terms of the period of time, content, and research methods. The results showed that 1) of the total studies on counting were published in 2001~2005, 2) the most frequent content was the developmental trend of young children's counting ability and then the relation between counting ability and various mathematical competence, 3) most of the studies targeted normal early childhood children from 3~5 years old and used the quantitative method. These results showed that the domestic research on counting have limits in the research topics, subjects, and methodology. The researcher presents three suggestions for further research. Frist, topics that are not enough revealed in the previous studies, for examples, counting backwards, counting by collections such as tens, fives, twos, and counting errors in young children need to be further studied. Second, counting behavior and ability of young children under 3 years olds need to be investigated. Third, there is a need to increase the studies using qualitative methods.

Variations in Eye Volume, Surface Area, and Shape with Refractive Error in Young Children by Magnetic Resonance Imaging Analysis

To determine variations in eye volume, surface area, and shape with refractive error in young children using a three-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) model. A subset of Singaporean Chinese boys enrolled in the population-based Strabismus, Amblyopia, and Refractive Error in Singapore (STARS) study underwent MRI using a 3-Tesla whole body scanner with a 32-channel head coil. Eye volume and surface area were measured. Eye shape was assessed qualitatively from the three-dimensional models and quantitatively by measurement of the longitudinal axial length (LAL), horizontal width, and vertical height along the cardinal axes. One hundred thirty-four eyes of 67 subjects (mean age, 77.9 ± 3.9 months) were analyzed. The mean spherical equivalent (SE) refraction was 0.65 ± 0.92 D (range, -2.31 to 4.13 D). More myopic SE was associated with larger surface area (-20.59 [-37.09 to -4.10] mm²/D; P = 0.01) but not volume. In age-height adjusted models, more myopic SE was associated with longer LAL (-1.94 [-2.47 to -1.41] mm/D; P < 0.001) and greater width (-1.12 [-1.26 to -0.99] mm/D; P < 0.001) but not height (0.64 [-2.55 to 3.82] mm/D; P = 0.70). In nonmyopic subjects, less hyperopic SE was associated with longer AL (-0.40 [-0.71 to -0.10] mm/D; P = 0.01), width (-0.59 [-0.84 to -0.34] mm/D; P < 0.001), and height (-0.40 [-0.64 to -0.17] mm/D; P = 0.001). In three-dimensional models, myopic eyes conformed to an axial elongation model with a prolate profile in the axial plane, whereas nonmyopic eyes showed global expansion. Eye surface area increases with myopia in young children. Eye shape is different in myopia, even in its early stages. Axial globe enlargement occurs in myopic eyes leading to a prolate shape, whereas nonmyopic eyes enlarge globally in length, width, and height.

Tenfold therapeutic dosing errors in young children reported to U.S. poison control centers

Tenfold dosing medication errors reported to U.S. poison control centers in children younger than six years of age were evaluated. A retrospective review of all exposures in children younger than six years of age reported to the American Association of Poison Control Centers' data collection system during 2000-04 was conducted. Cases were selected for inclusion if the exposure was an unintentional therapeutic error and if 10-fold dosing error was coded as one of the therapeutic-error scenarios. The specific substance or drug category, patient age and sex, site of exposure, clinical effects, disposition, and outcome were evaluated A total of 3894 10-fold dosing errors involving a single substance in children younger than six years of age were reported over a five-year period. The site of exposure was most commonly a residence (n = 3609, 92.7%), followed by a health care facility (n = 223, 5.7%) and a school (n = 32, 0.8%). More than half of the exposures occurred in children 12 months of age or younger. When stratified by age, histamine H(2)- receptor antagonists and metoclopramide were the most common medications involved in exposures in children 12 months of age and younger. Cough and cold preparations and antibiotics were the most commonly involved medications in therapeutic errors in children over age 12 months. The most common substances involved in 10-fold medication errors reported to U.S. poison control centers were histamine H(2)-receptor antagonists and metoclopramide. Most exposures occurred in the home and involved children 12 months of age or younger.

Reliability of Cycloplegic Autorefractor Measurements to determine Spherical and Astigmatic Refractive Errors in Young Children

Background: This paper mainly focuses on the reliability study of cycloplegic autorefractor measurements over other methods in young children. Material and Method In a prospective study, 200 school children aged 8 to 15 years were evaluated for refractive errors in a period of one year. Noncycloplegic autorefraction, followed by cycloplegic conventional retinoscopy and cycloplegic autorefraction was performed. Cyclopentolate eye drops(1 %) are used for this purpose. Fundus examination was performed in all children to exclude any posterior segment pathology. Post-mydriatic assessment was performed after one week. Results Post-mydriatic test values are used as gold standard. There is a no significant difference between cycloplegic autorefractor spherical power, cylindrical power and axis measurements against Post mydriatic test values. The difference is statistically significant in case of non -cycloplegic autorefraction. Conclusion Autorefraction with cycloplegia can be substituted for the conventional cycloplegic retinoscopy for both spherical and astigmatic refractive errors in young children. Note: This study was conducted by first author at Department of Ophthalmology, Rangaraya Medical College, Kakinada, India in the year 2002-2003.

Cognitive Science meets the Design Plan

According to Alvin Plantinga, the cornerstone of epistemology is the proper functioning of our cognitive faculties in accordance with the design plan. In this paper I will explore two aspects of the design plan that are of central relevance to the acquisition of warranted true beliefs. In the first place, perceptual beliefs were supposed to be taken in the basic way and should therefore constitute highly warranted true beliefs. Scale errors in young children pose serious problems for this argument, while they show that part of the visual system may be misguided by perceptual beliefs, as a normal part of the development of the human design plan. Secondly, the ascription of mental states to other persons does not depend on deductive or inductive inference from behaviour. However, the discovery of so-called ‘mirror-neurons’ suggests that motor simulation of observed behaviour plays a crucial role in understanding the intentions of others. I conclude by arguing for a refinement of the notion of ‘design plan’, guided by recent approaches in cognitive science that should make Plantinga’s externalist account at least falsifiable.

Comparison of Aberrometer and Autorefractor Measures of Refractive Error in Children

The purpose of this study was to evaluate and compare the Complete Ophthalmic Analysis System (COAS) G200 Aberrometer (Wavefront Sciences Inc., Albuquerque, NM) and Canon RK-F1 Autorefractor (Canon Inc., Tokyo, Japan) for measuring refractive errors in young children. The Sydney Myopia Study is a population-based study of refractive error and eye health in young Australian children. Cycloplegic refractions were performed on 1504 school year 1 students (mostly 6 years old) and 890 school year 7 (mostly 12 years old) students using both the COAS G200 Aberrometer and Canon RK-F1 autorefractor. Refractive data were analyzed using power vectors. Mean differences and 95% limits of agreement were determined for refractive components between the two instruments. The mean age +/- standard deviation was 6.7 +/- 0.4 years (range, 5.5-9.1 years) and 12.6 +/- 0.5 years (range, 11.1-14.4 years) for the year 1 and year 7 students, respectively. Mean paired differences for the M component (spherical equivalent) between the COAS G200 and Canon RK-F1 were <0.25 D in both age groups and were statistically significant in the year 1 group only (p < 0.001). Small significant differences were found in the astigmatic components (J0 and J45) in both groups. A smaller coefficient of agreement for the M component was found in the older group (0.54 D), whereas the coefficients of agreement of the astigmatic components (J0 and J45) were similar for both groups. The COAS G200 aberrometer was an easy-to-use instrument for the measurement of refractive error in children. In addition to being able to measure higher and lower order aberrations, the COAS G200 provides refractive error measurements comparable to those of an autorefractor.

Drag-and-drop errors in young children’s use of the mouse

The main argument against the use of drag-and-drop in software for young children is that it may be too difficult for them to maintain pressure on the mouse button during movement. The present research findings refuted this argument by showing that most errors made by children from Kindergarten 2 and Grade 1 and university students occur at the beginning and end of a move and not in between. The results also show that the number of errors are affected by receptor size and movement direction, but not by movement distance. Based on these results, design guidelines are formulated.

Young children's errors combining visual information for recognition and action

Young children's errors combining visual information for recognition and action

Testing the Agreement/Tense Omission Model: why the data on children's use of non-nominative 3psg subjects count against the ATOM

One of the most influential recent accounts of pronoun case-marking errors in young children's speech is Schütze & Wexler's (1996) Agreement/Tense Omission Model (ATOM). The ATOM predicts that the rate of agreeing verbs with non-nominative subjects will be so low that such errors can be reasonably disregarded as noise in the data. The present study tests this prediction on data from 12 children between the ages of 1; 8.22 and 3 ; 0.10. This is done, first, by identifying children who produced a reasonably large number of non-nominative 3psg subjects; second, by estimating the expected rate of agreeing verbs with masculine and feminine non-nominative subjects in these children's speech; and, third, by examining the actual rate at which agreeing verb forms occurred with non-nominative subjects in those areas of the data in which the expected error rate was significantly greater than 10%. The results show, first, that only three of the children produced enough non-nominative subjects to allow a reasonable test of the ATOM to be made; second, that for all three of these children, the only area of the data in which the expected frequency of agreeing verbs with non-nominative subjects was significantly greater than 10% was their use of feminine case-marked subjects; and third, that for all three of these children, the rate of agreeing verbs with nonnominative feminine subjects was over 30%. These results raise serious doubts about the claim that children's use of non-nominative subjects can be explained in terms of AGR optionality, and suggest the need for a model of pronoun case-marking error that can explain why some children produce agreeing verb forms with non-nominative subjects as often as they do.

The Incidence of Error in Young Children'sWh-Questions

Many current generativist theorists suggest that young children possess the grammatical principles of inversion required for question formation but make errors because they find it difficult to learn language-specific rules about how inversion applies. The present study analyzed longitudinal spontaneous sampled data from twelve 2-3-year-old English speaking children and the intensive diary data of 1 child (age 2;7 [years;months] to 2;11) in order to test some of these theories. The results indicated significantly different rates of error use across different auxiliaries. In particular, error rates differed across 2 forms of the same auxiliary subtype (e.g., auxiliary is vs. are), and auxiliary DO and modal auxiliaries attracted significantly higher rates of errors of inversion than other auxiliaries. The authors concluded that current generativist theories might have problems explaining the patterning of errors seen in children's questions, which might be more consistent with a constructivist account of development. However, constructivists need to devise more precise predictions in order to fully explain the acquisition of questions.

Comparison of measurements of refractive errors between the hand-held Retinomax and on-table autorefractors in cyclopleged and noncyclopleged children

Purpose To compare the measurement of refractive errors (sphere, cylinder, and axis) between the hand-held Retinomax and on-table Topcon autorefractors in cyclopleged and noncyclopleged young children. The average bias and measurement agreement were assessed. Design Observational cross-sectional study. Methods The study included 114 cyclopleged and 156 noncyclopleged young children. The mean difference between the two methods and the 95% limits of agreement were calculated to evaluate the average bias. Two types of analyses were conducted to assess the degree of agreement. First, the proportion of the absolute mean differences was presented in different ranges (≤0.25, 0.25–0.5, 0.5–0.75, 0.75–1.0, and >1.0 diopters for sphere and cylinder; 0–10, 11–20 and >20 degrees for axis). Second, the paired t test was conducted to evaluate the consistency of two types of measurements. Results The data by the Retinomax had mild bias (0.59 diopters) toward a lower sphere data under noncycloplegia but no bias under cycloplegia. For cylinder and axis, there was either no bias or clinically acceptable bias (0.02–0.13 diopters for cylinder and 2–7 degrees for axis) regardless of cycloplegia. Besides the sphere data under noncycloplegia, in general 90% of the mean differences of sphere and cylinder were within 0.5 diopters. More than 97% of the difference in axis under cycloplegia and 68% under noncycloplegia were within 20 degrees. After adjusting for mild bias, the paired t test showed very consistent results. Conclusions The data by the Retinomax were consistent with those by the Topcon. The Retinomax is a useful instrument to screen refractive errors in young children.

Using Markov models to assess articulation errors in young children

Digital recordings of children producing the names ‘‘Rhonda’’ and ‘‘Wanda,’’ and/or ‘‘Toto’’ and ‘‘Coco’’ were made using the microphone input to a Toshiba laptop computer (16-bit samples, 22&amp;lt;th&amp;gt;050-kHz sampling rate) with an AKG C410/B head-mounted condenser microphone. These names were associated with animated characters in a mock video game running on the laptop under the control of a Speech Language Pathologist. The children, ranging in age from four to six years, were undergoing speech therapy at the Alfred I. duPont Hospital for Children for one or both of two common articulation errors: /w/ substituted for /r/; and/or /t/ substituted for /k/. The initial segment in each recorded utterance was classified by laboratory staff as either r/w or t/k, and assigned a goodness rating. Discrete Hidden Markov phoneme Models (DHMMs) trained using data recorded from normally articulating children were then used to classify the same utterances and results of the automatic classification were compared to the human classification. Results indicate that appropriately trained DHMMs can provide accurate classification of utterances from children in speech therapy. This technology could support articulation drill on home computer systems as an adjunct to speech therapy. [Work supported by Nemours Research Programs.]

Reproducibility and accuracy of measurements with a hand held autorefractor in children

AIMTo determine reproducibility and accuracy of the Nikon Retinomax autorefractor when used with children who were made cycloplegic.METHODSAutorefraction and retinoscopy or subjectively refined retinoscopy (where, under the patient’s direction, the...