Eritrean Migrants Research Articles

The Paradox of Humanitarian Recognition

Eritreans experience what I call the paradox of humanitarian recognition. Beneficiaries of some of the highest refugee-recognition rates in Global North countries, Eritreans nevertheless experience kidnap, ransoming, extortion, and pre-emptive detention in countries of transit like Sudan and Libya. Efforts by the European Union to address these abuses under multilateral anti-trafficking agreements—as well as broader efforts to externalize European borders and asylum—have further contained and criminalized networks of solidarity that extend beyond countries of transit into countries of settlement such as Italy. Based on twenty months of participant observation and interviews with Eritreans in northern Italy, this article analyzes Eritrean migrants’ experiences of violence in Libya, a country of transit, and efforts of Eritrean activists to both bring this violence to light and to aid recent refugees. Eritreans’ experiences of seeking asylum upend the binaries between legal inclusion and exclusion on which refugee exceptionalism is predicated.

Becoming ‘Swiss’: waste management integration among Ethiopian and Eritrean migrants in Zürich, Switzerland

For Swiss cities, connecting new migrants to basic services, like waste management, has emerged as an essential challenge toward their social and civic integration. Drawing on an ethnographic approach, this study investigates solid waste management integration within Zürich’s Ethiopian and Eritrean migrant communities. Our findings suggest that new arrivals learn quickly and are driven by a motivation to integrate and adapt to expected norms. However, learning is often characterized by trial and error and accompanied by expensive mistakes. Barriers include a lack of translated informational material and insufficient opportunity for asylum seekers to learn rules and norms on waste management. We recommend making standardized materials available and ensuring clear communication in a language that newly arriving migrants can understand. We also recommend targeted training on life skills, including waste management behaviors for asylum seekers at residential processing centers so that refugees can be trained on expected norms before transitioning into an independent living situation.

Amongst agaish: the criminalization of Eritrean migrants’ communities of care

ABSTRACT In the Processo Agaish trial, Italian prosecutors accused Eritrean refugees of human trafficking and exploiting their clients’ desires to move further North. Pointing out the mistranslation of the Tigrinya word agaish was part of the defense's strategy to show that the purported victims in this case were not clients, but guests, often family members of those accused who hosted them, not for money but for something akin to hospitality. Defense lawyers linked this case with activist efforts to decry instances where solidarity with asylum seekers was criminalized as aiding and abetting human trafficking in order to expose this criminalization of solidarity as the latest politically motivated tactic in migrant deterrence. This article details the culturally specific forms of caretaking amongst Eritreans in order to consider, from an Eritrean perspective, the relational aspects of care and rethink the scholarship on the ‘criminalization of solidarity’ that limits itself to understanding solidarity in terms of politics. This article further argues that relational ties and hospitality practices amongst agaish become fragmented in the Eritrean diaspora. This work is based on ethnographic fieldwork with the Eritrean refugee community living primarily in Rome from 2016 to 2018 and access to case files in a human-trafficking investigation.

‘Are you a refugee like us? Oh then we have hope!’ Affective discursive encounters in doing insider Other research

Abstract In this article, I reflect on how paying attention to the flow of affect between participants and the researcher during interviews unveils knowledge that highlights inequalities and advances a decolonial approach. I specifically discuss the capacity of productive discomfort in revealing valuable insights about the lived experiences of forced migrants and in uncovering knowledge that might otherwise stay hidden. In doing so, I demonstrate how my positionality as an ‘insider Other’ and my approach to interviews as affective encounters open up profound layers of experiences and sense-making. Expanding upon this, the study presents a unique framework that combines the method of interviews, conceptualized as situated affective encounters, with an affective-discursive analytical framework that views affect as intertwined with meaning and discourse. This fusion emphasizes the significance of emotions as a source of knowledge in the research process. The study highlights how this approach contributes to the reflexivity turn in migration studies and elucidates how the combined framework can guide researchers to work with discomfort. This can be a source of insight, as demonstrated by reflecting on my own research on the lived experiences of Eritrean migrants. I use several excerpts from my data to demonstrate how viewing emotions as meaningful leads to nuanced interpretations, thereby enriching insights into the living conditions of those who arrived as forced migrants.

Plotting Democratic Change in Chat Rooms: The Role of PalTalk as an Eritrean Diaspora Forum

This study explores the utilization of the PalTalk chat application by the Eritrean diaspora as a platform for solidarity building and long-distance activism against totalitarianism in their home country between 2000 and 2016. The objective of this research is to analyze the role of Eritrean PalTalk as a transnational mobilization network, with a particular focus on “Smer” room, one of the most popular Eritrean PalTalk groups ( Smer is “unite” in Tigrinya). The study delves into the evolution, struggles, and milestones of “Smer” room and illustrates how Eritrean migrants, living under a regime where private press is banned and criticism of the government is not tolerated, utilized chat rooms as safe spaces for solidarity building and public opinion construction. Additionally, the research considers how PalTalk may have enabled diaspora Eritreans to overcome fears of punishment from the repressive state, and how chat room patrons planned and mobilized diasporic mass demonstrations in Europe demanding the stepping down of their state leader.

“People love talking about racism”: downplaying discrimination, and challenges to anti-racism among Eritrean migrants in Australia

ABSTRACT Why may the supposed victims of racism and discrimination downplay these phenomena? This paper examines experiences of and responses to racism and discrimination among highly educated Eritrean migrants in Australia. Contrary to research findings on experiences of discrimination among migrant groups as widely reported and impactful, most of my interlocutors seldom reported such experiences, despite acknowledging that discrimination existed generally and vicariously. I discuss participants’ direct and indirect experiences with racism and discrimination, and identify five key reasons for downplaying and not reporting them, including limitations to perceiving and recognizing these phenomena; undermining racism in Australia in comparison to other racisms; gratitude to Australians and to Australia as “the lucky country”; harbouring strong meritocratic values that contrasted with viewing discrimination as impactful; and dissociation from narratives of victimhood and powerlessness. Finally, I discuss how participants’ perspectives pose challenges for anti-racism scholarship and practice more broadly.

Screening for schistosomiasis among Eritrean refugees: a public health priority

Abstract Issue From 2014 to 2020, 24 422 Eritrean refugees arrived in Switzerland. After they applied for asylum in a federal centre, asylum seekers are allocated to the 26 Swiss cantons, among them Geneva. In the University hospitals of Geneva, the Programme Santé Migrants (PSM) is dedicated to ambulatory care for refugees. Problem 30% of the PSM outpatients are Eritrean. After their arrival in Geneva, asylum seekers get a medical evaluation. We noticed that the Eritrean's health status was poor, due to their long and hazardous migratory journey. Some had a hypereosinophilia and their helminthiasis serologies were positive for schistosomiasis (Schs). We decided to implement a protocol to screen and treat Eritrean patients for Schs. Highlighting this infection among this population was important because: it is a chronic disease which can lead to severe consequences if untreated; 42% of the Swiss refugees are Eritreans; in Switzerland, Praziquantel (PZQ), the treatment of Schs, is not distributed and not refunded by medical insurances. However, our hospital's pharmacy can import PZQ. We analysed 158 medical records of Eritrean patients, to see if the screening protocol was applied. Results Among the 158 patients records 72 were women. Mean age 27. 118 (74.7%) of 158 got a Schs serology. 62 (52.5%) were positive or borderline (PB). 29.6% patients with PB had a hypereosinophilia (HE) > 0.5 G/l, and 59% had HE > 5%. None of the negative had HE > 0.5G/l. 44/62 PB had a stools examination and Schs eggs were present among 61% of the P and 18% of the B. 44 (71%) of the 62 PB got a PZQ treatment. Among not treated, 33% were pregnant women. Lessons 25% of patients did not get the protocol. Electronic warning in the electronic files could help, especially in hospitals with large residents turn over. More than 50% of Eritrean patients had a positive or borderline Schs serology. The treatment (PZQ) is easy to take and effective, but not easily accessible and not free in Switzerland. Key messages Schistosomiasis is a frequent disease among Eritrean migrants. Systematic screening should be implemented among them with quality controls. If positive, they should have access to the treatment. European countries should adapt their drug licences and access to treatment to the diversity of the population, taking into account the epidemiology of diseases in the countries of origin.

‘Becoming Black’

Abstract Little is known about racial identity claims of African migrants living in Israel who originate from countries where race is not a dominant identity marker. This article examines how Eritrean migrants, coming from a country where race-based social organisation is not prevalent, strategically adopted ‘Black’ as their identity marker in Israel. Online newspaper reports and conversational interviews with four Eritrean migrants were used as sources of data. During various anti-deportation protests, Eritrean migrants held signs with slogans referring to themselves as Black. Some of the slogans include: ‘Do Black lives matter in Israel?’, ‘Black or White I am human’, ‘Deported to death because I am Black’, and ‘Now I am White, will you deport me?’ I argue that for first generation Eritrean migrants in Israel, Black racial identity was adopted strategically as a political identity of social mobilisation and resistance in the face of a racialised and exclusionary migration policy.

Gender and Family Relations: Experiences of Highly Educated Eritrean Migrants in the UK

Using the concept of intersectionality and narrative interviews with eighteen highly educated Eritrean migrants in the UK, this phenomenological study puts gender and family at the centre of socio-cultural integration of migrants. The research findings indicate that migration increases the economic power and freedom of women, helping them improve their social status and lead independent lives. However, there is a conflict within households relating to the need to maintain traditional patriarchal values and recognise women as equal partners. This, among other factors, has hindered the women’s gender equality and emancipation from patriarchal oppression within the host country. Most of the women participants in this study experienced more exclusion and mistreatment than men. They often shoulder career and familial responsibilities. Some of the women even shift to part-time jobs or interrupt their careers to take care of their children as they lack family support and could not afford to pay for childcare. The study contributes to a better understanding of migrants’ socio-cultural experiences in their host country.

Raising Children in Exile: Experiences of Highly Educated Eritrean Migrants in the UK

ABSTRACT Child-rearing practices can be challenging for migrants who often require socio-cultural and emotional adjustments. This article discusses parenting in exile with a focus on the experiences of highly educated Eritrean migrants in the UK. Qualitative data are collected from eighteen highly educated Eritrean migrants selected through purposive and snowball sampling from the UK. The findings indicate that highly educated Eritrea migrants aspire to avoid harmful traditional ways of treating children and all the repercussions associated with them. Moreover, with the help of their educational qualifications, my participants support their children in social and academic activities and guide them to cultivate bi-cultural coping skills. However, the migrant parents face challenges related to lack of parenting experiences and familiar support systems. The article contributes to the advancement of migration knowledge by adding new perspectives to the nexus of migration and child-raising.

Integrative transnational analysis to dissect tuberculosis transmission events along the migratory route from Africa to Europe.

Growing international migration has increased the complexity of tuberculosis transmission patterns. Italy's decision to close its borders in 2018 made of Spain the new European porte entrée for migration from the Horn of Africa (HA). In one of the first rescues of migrants from this region at the end of 2018, tuberculosis was diagnosed in eight subjects, mainly unaccompanied minors. Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from these recently arrived migrants were analysed by Mycobacterial Interspersed Repetitive-Unit/Variable-Number of Tandem Repeat (MIRU-VNTR) and subsequent whole genome sequencing (WGS) analysis. Data were compared with those from collections from other European countries receiving migrants from the HA and a strain-specific PCR was applied for a fast searching of common strains. Infections in a cellular model were performed to assess strain virulence. MIRU-VNTR analysis allowed identifying an epidemiological cluster involving three of the eight cases from Somalia (0 single-nucleotide polymorphisms between isolates, HA cluster). Following detailed interviews revealed that two of these cases had shared the same migratory route in most of the trip and had spent a long time at a detention camp in Libya. To confirm potential en route transmission for the three cases, we searched the same strain in collections from other European countries receiving migrants from the HA. MIRU-VNTR, WGS and a strain-specific PCR for the HA strain were applied. The same strain was identified in 12 cases from Eritrea diagnosed soon after their arrival in 2018 to the Netherlands, Belgium and Italy. Intracellular replication rate of the strain did not reveal abnormal virulence. Our study suggests a potential en route transmission of a pan-susceptible strain, which caused at least 15 tuberculosis cases in Somalian and Eritrean migrants diagnosed in four different European countries.

Before disembarkation: Eritrean and Nigerian migrants journeys within Africa

ABSTRACT This paper examines the experiences of Nigerian and Eritrean migrants on their journeys from their origin country to prior to disembarkation across the Mediterranean Sea in Libya. This paper builds on the work of Vigh (2006. “Social Death and Violent Life Chances.” In Navigation Youth, Generating Adulthood: Social Becoming in and African Context, edited by Catrine Christiansen, Mats Utas, and Henrik Vigh. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet; 2009. “Motion Squared: A Second Look at the Concept of Social Navigation.” Anthropological Theory 9 (4): 419–438) in the social navigation approach by applying it to migration journeys and illustrating how migrants display their agency within their navigation, while simultaneously reflecting on the oppression and constrained choices that they experience in their journeys. Drawing on qualitative fieldwork with 69 respondents in Italy in 2017, this paper examines how Eritrean and Nigerian migrants experience their journeys and navigate through complex environments. The results illustrate the differences in expectations, experiences, and transnational connections of the two cases. This article contributes to the literature on migrant’s agency and social navigation of their journeys.

Migrants rescued on the Mediterranean Sea route: nutritional, psychological status and infectious disease control.

North Africa has become a key migratory hub where a large number of migrants attempt the journey by sea from the Libyan coastline to the south of Europe. In this humanitarian disaster scenario, the Mediterranean route has been one of the most used by illegal boats. In this report, the state of physical and psychological health of a cluster of Eritrean migrants, escaped from Libya and rescued in the Mediterranean Sea after a shipwreck, was described by epidemiological, clinical and laboratory investigations. Data suggest that despite the majority of the migrants being apparently in good health upon a syndromic surveillance approach, most of them suffered a decline in psychological status as well as severe malnutrition. The emergence of infectious diseases, related to poor living conditions during the journey, is not a rare event. The present report highlights the risks of failures of the syndromic medical approach in the setting of the extremely challenging migration route and underlines migrant frailties consequent to a prolonged journey and long period of detention. These stressors, which can degrade the initial health condition of traveling migrants, can lead to a premature "exhausted migrant effect" that should be carefully investigated in order to avoid the early emergence of diseases related to frailty.

Where do Eritrean migrants get infected with malaria? The importance of considering the migration route.

Where do Eritrean migrants get infected with malaria? The importance of considering the migration route.

Malaria in Eritrean migrants newly arrived in seven European countries, 2011 to 2016.

Global migration has resulted in a large number of asylum applications in Europe. In 2014, clusters of Plasmodium vivax cases were reported among newly arrived Eritreans. This study aimed to assess malaria among Eritrean migrants in Europe from 2011 to 2016. We reviewed European migration numbers and malaria surveillance data for seven countries (Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom) which received 44,050 (94.3%) of 46,730 Eritreans seeking asylum in Europe in 2014. The overall number of malaria cases, predominantly P. vivax, increased significantly in 2014 compared to previous years, with the largest increases in Germany (44 P. vivax cases in 2013 vs 294 in 2014, p < 0.001) and Sweden (18 in 2013 vs 205 in 2014, p < 0.001). Overall, malaria incidence in Eritreans increased from 1–5 to 25 cases per 1,000, and was highest in male teenagers (50 cases/1,000). In conclusion, an exceptional increase of malaria cases occurred in Europe in 2014 and 2015, due to rising numbers of Eritreans with high incidence of P. vivax arriving in Europe. Our results demonstrate potential for rapid changes in imported malaria patterns, highlighting the need for improved awareness, surveillance efforts and timely healthcare in migrants.

Area of exposure and treatment challenges of malaria in Eritrean migrants: a GeoSentinel analysis

BackgroundRecent reports highlight malaria as a frequent diagnosis in migrants who originate from Eritrea. A descriptive analysis of GeoSentinel cases of malaria in Eritrean migrants was done together with a literature review to elucidate key attributes of malaria in this group with a focus on possible areas of acquisition of malaria and treatment challenges.ResultsA total of 146 cases were identified from the GeoSentinel database from 1999 through September 2017, with a marked increase in 2014 and 2015. All patients originated from Eritrea and the main reporting GeoSentinel sites were in Norway, Switzerland, Sweden, Israel and Germany. The majority of patients (young adult males) were diagnosed with malaria following arrival in the host country. All patients had a possible exposure in Eritrea, but may have been exposed in documented transit countries including Ethiopia, Sudan and possibly Libya in detention centres. Most infections were due to Plasmodium vivax (84.2%), followed by Plasmodium falciparum (8.2%). Two patients were pregnant, and both had P. vivax malaria. Some 31% of the migrants reported having had malaria while in transit. The median time to onset of malaria symptoms post arrival in the host country was 39 days. Some 66% of patients were hospitalized and nine patients had severe malaria (according to WHO criteria), including five due to P. vivax.ConclusionsThe 146 cases of mainly late onset, sometimes severe, P. vivax malaria in Eritrean migrants described in this multi-site, global analysis reflect the findings of single-centre analyses identified in the literature search. Host countries receiving asylum-seekers from Eritrea need to be prepared for large surges in vivax and, to a lesser extent, falciparum malaria, and need to be aware and prepared for glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency testing and primaquine treatment, which is difficult to procure and mainly unlicensed in Europe. There is an urgent need to explore the molecular epidemiology of P. vivax in Eritrean asylum-seekers, to investigate the area of acquisition of P. vivax along common transit routes and to determine whether there has been re-introduction of malaria in areas, such as Libya, where malaria is considered eliminated, but where capable vectors and Plasmodium co-circulate.

Post-independence Eritrean Migrants Transiting Through/Living in Sudan: Driven by Politics or Economics

Post-independence Eritrean Migrants Transiting Through/Living in Sudan: Driven by Politics or Economics

Infectious disease profiles of Syrian and Eritrean migrants presenting in Europe: A systematic review.

In the past decade, a large influx of migrants presented in Europe. Their country of origin was mainly either Syria or Eritrea. Public health institutions in host countries in Europe are challenged to screen and care for migrant populations with regard to infectious diseases. We performed a systematic literature review (according to PRISMA guidelines) to define the infectious disease profile of migrants originating in Syria and Eritrea. The search resulted in 825 papers of possible relevance for infectious diseases in migrants from Syria, of which, after screening, we included 35 in the systematic review. A further 265 papers of possible relevance for infectious diseases in Eritrean migrants were screened, of which we included 27 in the systematic review. In migrants from Syria, leishmaniasis was the most frequently reported infectious disease. In addition, colonisation with drug resistant, Gram-negativ bacteria was reported. In the Eritrean migrants the infectious disease most described in the selected papers was louse-borne relapsing fever. Other frequently reported infectious diseases were scabies and Plasmodium vivax malaria. Our systematic analysis defines the profiles of infectious diseases for migrants from Syria and Eritrea and serves as an evidence base for public health screening and care of presenting migrants.

Prophylaxis and Therapy of Malaria: Current Recommendations

Malaria incidence is decreasing on a global scale, while the number of imported cases has remained at a high level in Germany. To decrease this number, counselling of travellers to malaria-endemic regions is important. Patients to high risk countries need regular chemoprophylaxis. The alternative of stand-by emergency treatment for travellers to regions with low or medium risk has been met with growing criticism. For the treatment of all malaria cases, artemisinins are a mainstay of treatment. Regular follow-up is warranted to prevent relapses. After treatment with intravenous artesunate for complicated malaria, delayed haemolysis must be kept in mind. A special situation has risen in Germany since 2014 with a growing number of Eritrean migrants presenting with Plasmodium vivax malaria. These patients need an additional course of primaquine to prevent relapses.

Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and intramuscular vitamin D3 supplementation among Eritrean migrants recently arrived in Switzerland.

In a cross-sectional screening programme, we assessed serum vitamin D levels in adult Eritrean refugees recently arrived in Switzerland. Median vitamin D level among 107 participants (95 males and 12 females) was 27 nmol/l (interquartile range 23-42 nmol/l), 86% had insufficient vitamin D levels (≤50 nmol/l) and 36% severe deficiency (<25 nmol/l). In 29 participants who received single-dose intramuscular vitamin D substitution (300 000 IU), median vitamin D levels increased from 25 to 35 nmol/l after 3 months (p = 0.005); only 11 (38%) reached sufficient vitamin D levels. Eritrean migrants should be routinely screened for vitamin D deficiency. Single-dose intramuscular supplementation appeared to be insufficient to achieve optimal levels in the majority of participants.