Erikson's Developmental Theory Research Articles

The Sequential Problem of the Eight Human Aims in the Great Learning

The Confucian classic Great Learning (Daxue 大學) articulates in a sequence eight human aims for the good life. There have been various interpretations of the relations of these aims. This essay problematizes these interpretations and proposes a solution that the sequence of these Confucian human aims is developmentally temporal yet not stage-exclusive. I illustrate such an account by drawing on the model of Erik Erikson's developmental theory. Accordingly, while there is a temporal progression in achieving these aims, they nevertheless should be pursued concurrently throughout most of a person's life.

Youth social withdrawal behavior (hikikomori): A systematic review of qualitative and quantitative studies.

Acute and/or severe social withdrawal behavior among youth was seen as a culture-bound psychiatric syndrome in Japan, but more youth social withdrawal cases in different countries have been discovered recently. However, due to the lack of a formal definition and diagnostic tool for youth social withdrawal, cross-cultural observational and intervention studies are limited. We aimed to consolidate existing knowledge in order to understand youth social withdrawal from diverse perspectives and suggest different interventions for different trajectories of youth social withdrawal. This review examined the current available scientific information on youth social withdrawal in the academic databases: ProQuest, ScienceDirect, Web of Science and PubMed. We included quantitative and qualitative studies of socially withdrawn youths published in English and academic peer-reviewed journals. We synthesized the information into the following categories: (1) definitions of youth social withdrawal, (2) developmental theories, (3) factors associated with youth social withdrawal and (4) interventions for socially withdrawn youths. Accordingly, there are diverse and controversial definitions for youth social withdrawal. Studies of youth social withdrawal are based on models that lead to quite different conclusions. Researchers with an attachment perspective view youth social withdrawal as a negative phenomenon, whereas those who adopt Erikson's developmental theory view it more positively as a process of seeking self-knowledge. Different interventions for socially withdrawn youths have been developed, mainly in Japan, but evidence-based practice is almost non-existent. We propose a theoretical framework that views youth social withdrawal as resulting from the interplay between psychological, social and behavioral factors. Future validation of the framework will help drive forward advances in theory and interventions for youth social withdrawal as an emerging issue in developed countries.

Sense of meaning in life among the oldest old people living in a rural area in northern Sweden.

Having meaning in life is important for all people, and according to Erikson's developmental theory, this is especially true for older adults. However, there are few studies about meaning in life focusing on the oldest old. The aim of our study was to illuminate the sense of meaning in life in the oldest old living in northern Sweden. The study has a qualitative explorative and interpretative design. We interviewed three men and seven women between 85 and 95years old and analysed the interviews using qualitative content analysis. Our findings revealed the following four themes: 'Creating space for living', 'Living in connection with others and nature', 'Seeing oneself as a link between generations' and 'Having trust in God'. The sense of meaning in life in the oldest old was linked to regarding oneself as having a mission to carry out and to finding beauty, joy and happiness in life. The sense of meaning involved transferring to coming generations what earlier generations had left and having a deeply rooted faith in being taken care of from birth to the afterlife. When caring for the oldest old, it is important to take their experiences of sense of meaning in life into consideration and to focus on ways to maintain important sources of meaning in life.

Eriksonian Personality Research and Its Implications for Psychotherapy

Erikson's comprehensive theory of human development has been empirically validated by personality researchers who have taken a status approach to the adult stages of the life cycle: Identity, Intimacy, Generativity, and Integrity. An understanding of these stages has implications for psychotherapy. Erikson's theory provides a descriptive language for where the individual stands currently within a psychosocial developmental context, where he/she might have gotten "stuck" in the past, and where she/he is heading in terms of developmental goals. This article attempts to link the empirical research on Erikson's developmental theory with an approach to therapeutic intervention that could be utilized by therapists from an array of therapeutic approaches. The authors, who are developmental, personality and clinical psychologists, illustrate the use of Eriksonian personality theory in psychotherapy by discussing case examples from their own psychotherapy practices.

The Course and Psychosocial Correlates of Personality Disorder Symptoms in Adolescence: Erikson's Developmental Theory Revisited

Personality disorder symptoms were investigated in a community sample of young people (n = 714) to assess their relationship over time with well-being during adolescence and the emergence of intimacy in early adulthood. Drawing on Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, changes in adolescent well-being were conceptualized as indirect indicators of identity consolidation. Cluster B personality disorder symptoms (borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic symptoms) were conceptualized to represent “identity diffusion”—i.e. maladaptive personality traits that usually resolve during the identity crisis of adolescence. Latent growth models were used in 2 age cohorts to assess (1) interrelationships between Cluster B symptoms, well-being, and intimacy at mean ages 13.8 and 18.6 years; and (2) associations between their developmental trajectories over the next 6 years. As expected, higher personality disorder symptoms were associated with lower well-being during adolescence, and declines in personality disorder symptoms over time were associated with corresponding gains in well-being. Consistent with Erikson's developmental theory, there was an inverse relationship between Cluster B symptoms and intimacy that increased in strength as young people entered adulthood. As an indicator of successful identity consolidation, well-being was significantly associated with intimacy in female adolescents and young adults.

Models of Supervision

Prevailing models of clinical supervision are discussed and evaluated within the context of training psychologists for the school setting, with the goal effectiveness of developing a professional identity. Contextual variables (e.g., university versus field-based training), level of training, and interpersonal and intrapersonal characteristics are examined as contributory factors in the supervisory enterprise. A model emerging from Erikson's developmental theory is posited as an umbrella perspective for all models of supervision to facilitate the development of an autonomous and competent professional. Finally unanswered questions and suggestions for future research are specified.

Identity loss and psychological crisis in widowhood: a re-evaluation.

This study seeks to clarify the effect of widowhood on ego identity and psychological functioning. The sample consisted of eighty-three widows, ranging in age from twenty-two to seventy-four, who had been widowed an average of 4.9 years. A majority were found to be Identity Achievers on the Marcia instrument, and the group scored significantly higher on a structured measure of self-esteem (TSCS) in comparison to national norms. A quarter of the sample reported positive change after widowhood, 39 percent reported mixed effects, and only 30 percent reported only negative change. The results are discussed in terms of Erikson's developmental theory, suggesting that intimacy may be a more central issue of widowhood than ego identity. Further, little support is given the pathological sheen often attributed to widowhood. Rather, the data better fit a developmental or growth model of crisis resolution.

Rural Children's Time in Household Activities

Operating within the framework of Erikson's developmental theory, this research examined the amount of time rural children spent in household activities and several demographic factors related to that use of time. Data were obtained from a 1977–79 multistate survey of family use of time in which home interviews were conducted with 1,050 families from rural areas of 10 states. There were 1,045 children aged 6 through 17 yr. Findings indicated that children averaged 65 min. per day in household tasks. Children spent the most time in shopping and maintenance of home, yard, car, and pets. Age and sex of the child, education and employment of the mother, state of residence, and season of the year significantly affected the time spent on the tasks. Education of the father and income of the family were not significant sources of variation in the time spent.

Identity in Early Adolescence: A Developmental Perspective

Ego identity status definitions with examples are elaborated upon with particular reference to early adolescents. Patterns of potential identity status change for this age group are discussed within the context of Waterman's developmental model. From the findings of seven separate studies employing the Ego Identity Status Interview with samples ranging from the 6th grade to college entrance, it appears that a substantial majority of early and mid-adolescents are either identity diffuse or foreclosed. However, some instances of the moratorium and identity achievement statuses were found to occur even at the 6th grade level. In line with Erikson's developmental theory, with increasing grade level, the frequency of identity achievers and moratoriums increased while the frequency of foreclosures and diffusions decreased. The use of age appropriate scoring criteria for studying identity formation is discussed.

The Construct Validity of Three Self-Report Instruments Hypothesized to Measure the Degree of Resolution for Each of the First Six Stage Crises in Erikson's Developmental Theory of Personality

For a sample of 160 university students (56 males and 104 females) the major purpose of this study was to obtain evidence for the construct validity of each of three self-report inventories that had been designed to reflect the degree of successful or unsuccessful resolution of each of the first six of Erikson's eight stage crises within a theory of psychosocial development. Intercorrelations among the 36 subscales (12 subscales from each inventory with 6 representing a positive resolution and 6 others portraying a negative resolution of six stage crises) were obtained and submitted to a principal factors solution followed by both orthogonal and oblique rotations. Class standing as either a freshman or a senior/graduate student was correlated with each of the 36 subscales. The empirical factor structure defined failed to support the construct validity of the three self-report inventories, but instead indicated the presence of dimensions associated with method or response set variance. The correlational data suggesting that age was associated with a successful or unsuccessful resolution of stage crises of Identity and Intimacy yielded some support for validity.

Insomnia and psychosocial crisis: two studies of Erikson's developmental theory.

Insomnia and psychosocial crisis: two studies of Erikson's developmental theory.

Insomnia and psychosocial crisis: Two studies of Erikson's developmental theory.

Insomnia and psychosocial crisis: Two studies of Erikson's developmental theory.