Eravikulam National Park Research Articles

Frugivory, predation, and seed dispersal in Elaeocarpus munronii (Wight) Mast. (Elaeocarpaceae) -a near threatened species of the Western Ghats, India

Frugivory and seed dispersal of Elaeocarpus munronii (Wight) Mast. were studied in the shola forest of Eravikulam National Park. The entire day was divided into four-time intervals: morning (07.00–10.00), midday (10.00–01.00), afternoon (01.00–04.00), and evening (04.00–07.00) for data collection. Eleven bird and animal species from 10 families feed on the ripened fruits of this endemic tree. The frugivores are Nilgiri wood pigeon (Columba elphinstonii), large-billed crow (Corvus macororhynchos), small green barbet (Megalaima viridis), red vented bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer), Indian cuckoo (Cuculus micropterus), Nilgiri langur (Semnopithecus johni), lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus), brown palm civet (Paradoxurus jerdonii), Indian giant squirrel (Ratufa indica), grizzled Indian giant squirrel (Ratufa macroura), and Indian crested porcupine (Hystrix indica). Lion-tailed macaques, Indian crested porcupines, Indian giant squirrels, and grizzled Indian giant squirrels were the seed predators. Diurnal animals had the most visits during midday (10.00 am-1.00 pm), while nocturnal animals had the most visits during late evening (7.00 pm-10.00 pm). Nilgiri langurs had the highest predation intensity (92.93%), and brown palm civets left the most intact seeds (76.34%). Frugivore visits were evenly distributed across various individual trees, highlighting the importance of E. munronii trees as a food source for many species.

Butterflies of Eravikulam National Park and its environs in the Western Ghats of Kerala, India

The Eravikulam National Park (ENP) holds the largest remaining pristine patches of southern montane wet temperate forests and southern montane wet temperate grasslands of peninsular India. The study shows that ENP harbours 198 species of butterflies, constituting 60.73% of the butterflies recorded from Kerala and 59.10% of butterflies observed in Western Ghats (WG). Thirty-five species of butterflies seen in ENP have some level of endemicity associated with them and 22 of them (52.38%) are strictly endemic to WG. Twenty-seven species are under the schedules of Indian Wildlife Act 1972 (WPA) and its amendments. This National Park has montane grassland-Shola dependent super-endemics like Neptis palnica and Telinga davisoni. ENP also holds Parantica nilgiriensis a Near Threatened species and another 11 Western Ghats endemics, namely, Telinga davisoni, T. oculus, Ypthima chenu, Y. ypthimoides, Arnetta mercara, Baracus hampsoni, B. subditus, Thoressa astigmata, T. evershedi, Oriens concinna, and Caltoris canaraica, which are primary grass feeders. Eravikulam, on the Anamalai–High Range–Palni landscape, lies on a major path of the return migration of butterflies to Western Ghats before the north-east monsoons. Although well-protected, the ENP has anthropogenic pressures from tea estates surrounding it, mammal-oriented management practices like controlled burning of primary grasslands, and natural forest fires, that can significantly affect the invertebrate fauna especially montane grassland shola-dependent butterflies.

Impact management and experience design for sustainable development of ecotourism destinations: the case of Eravikulam National Park, India

ABSTRACT Among India's national parks, Eravikulam National Park(ENP) is the abode of several rare Kurinji flower species, especially Neelakurinji (Strobilanthes kunthianus) that blooms only once in 12 years; it also hosts the endangered Nilgiri Tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius). It is also the most extensive stretch of the undisturbed Shola-Grassland (Tropical montane forest) ecosystem in the Western Ghats of India. With more than a hundred thousand visitors frequenting the park every year, it became essential to manage impacts and identify the factors contributing sustainably to visitor impact management (VIM) at the national park. Managing the visitor impacts is the primary step in developing a prudent visitor experience design. This study presents the factors influencing VIM for sustainable development (SD), which may help the national park management understand the priority areas for better management and optimize visitor experiences in the future.

Forest Fire Risk Zone Mapping of Eravikulam National Park in India

Forest fire is one of the most common natural hazards occurring in the Western Ghats region of Kerala and is one of the reasons for forest degradation. This natural disaster causes considerable damage to the biodiversity of this region during the dry fire season. The area selected for the present study, Eravikulam National Park, which is predominantly of grassland vegetation, is also prone to forest fires. This study aims to delineate the forest fire risk zones in Eravikulam National Park using remote sensing (RS) data and geographic information system (GIS) techniques. In the present study, methods such as Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and Frequency Ratio (FR) were used to derive the weights, and the results were compared. We have used seven factors, i.e. land cover types, normalized difference vegetation index, normalized difference water index, slope angle, slope aspect, distance from the settlement, and distance from the road to prepare the fire risk zone map. The area of the prepared risk zone maps is divided into three zones, namely low, moderate, and high. From the study, it was found that the fire occurring in this area is due to natural as well as anthropogenic factors. The prepared forest fire risk zone maps are validated using the fire incidence data for the period from January 2003 to June 2019 collected from the records of the Forest Survey of India. The investigation revealed that 72% and 24% of the fire incidences occurred in the high risk zone of the maps prepared using the AHP and FR methods, respectively, which ascertained the superiority of the AHP method over the FR method for forest fire risk zone mapping. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis gives an area under the ROC curve (AUC) value of 0.767 and 0.567 for the AHP and FR methods, respectively. The risk zone maps will be useful for staff of the forest department, planners, and officials of the disaster management department to take effective preventive and mitigation measures.

A study of visitor impact management practices and visitor satisfaction at Eravikulam National Park, India

Protected areas (PAs) achieve recognition and enhanced protection when a sufficient number of tourists visit and appreciate them and influence policy to assure their survival. Despite the growing importance, little attention has been paid to visitor satisfaction in PAs. Visitor experience and satisfaction may be influenced by many attributes of PAs. The present study is an attempt to examine the effect of visitor impact management (VIM) practices on visitor experience and satisfaction concerning eco and wildlife tourism at Eravikulam National Park (ENP). VIM is a component of PA management and is required to ensure a high level of visitor experience, education, facilities, and services. For this purpose, researchers have measured the socio-economic profile of visitors and various attributes viz. tourism activities (TA), environmental impacts (ENI), socio-cultural impacts (SCI), visitor impact management (VIM), visitor education (VE), and overall satisfaction of visitors (OSA).The results of the study show that VIM is significantly and positively correlated with VE, OSA of visitors. (VIM, TA, ENI, SCI, VE) explained partial variation in the criterion variable viz., OSA.

Diversity of Pteridophyte Flora in Rajamala, Eravikulam National Park, Kerala, India

Aims: To enumerate the fern diversity in the disturbed landscapes of Rajamala part of Eravikulam National Park, Western Ghats
 Study Design: Purposive sampling method was adopted in the study area and habitats suitable for ferns were surveyed.
 Place and Duration of Study: The study area is Rajamala, a tourist impacted site inside Eravikulam National Park in Kerala, India. Intensive field explorations were carried out in this area during February 2018- April 2019, to document the ferns and fern-allies.
 Methodology: A preliminary study was conducted in February 2018 to identify the probable habitats of ferns for further detailed study. Purposive sampling was done in the study area considering the most suitable habitats in both shola ecosystems and grassland ecosystems of the area. Materials for herbaria were processed using standard methods. The collected plants were identified with the help of standard field guides and flora. The potential medicinally important ferns were also listed out.
 Results: 54 species of pteridophytes including fern and fern allies belonging to sixteen different families were found from the Rajamala region of Eravikulam National Park. Aspleniaceae was the most common family with 11 species followed by Polypodiaceae. The majority of the Pteridophytes found in the region are showing terrestrial habit. Eleven species found in the study site are medicinally important.
 Conclusion: Despite the high tourism pressure in the study area, pteridophyte species richness is higher in the Rajamala region of Western Ghats. The suitable habitat with ideal substrate conditions and year-long moisture availability in the substrates could be the reason for a higher number of pteridophyte species in this area.

A contribution to the earthworm diversity (Clitellata, Moniligastridae) of Kerala, a component of the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot, India, using integrated taxonomy

Earthworms (Clitellata, Moniligastridae) of Chaliyar River Malappuram, Eravikulam National Park, Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Parambikulam Tiger Reserve, Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Periyar National Park, Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary and Wayanad Forest, Kerala, a component of the hotspot of Western Ghats, India, were studied by the standard method of taxonomy, and their DNA barcode signatures using the mitochondrial gene cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) were generated for the first time. This study represents eleven species of earthworms of the family Moniligastridae: Drawida brunnea Stephenson, Drawida circumpapillata Aiyer, Drawida ghatensis Michaelsen, Drawida impertusa Stephenson, Drawida nilamburensis (Bourne), Drawida robusta (Bourne), Drawida scandens Rao, Drawida travancorense Michaelsen, Moniligaster aiyeri Gates, Moniligaster deshayesi Perrier, and Moniligaster gravelyi (Stephenson). In the phylogenetic analysis all the species were recovered in both neighbour–joining (NJ) and maximum likelihood (ML) trees with high clade support. The average K2P distance within and between species was 1.2 % and 22 %, whereas the clear barcode gap of 2–5 % was suggested by barcode gap analysis (BGA) of studied species, reflecting the accuracy of characterization. The study presents the first step in the molecular characterization of the native earthworm family Moniligastridae of India. Data published through GBIF (Doi: 10.15470/l2nlhz)

A Study of Visitor Impact Management Practices and Visitor Satisfaction at Eravikulam National Park, India

A Study of Visitor Impact Management Practices and Visitor Satisfaction at Eravikulam National Park, India

Large scale burning for a threatened ungulate in a biodiversity hotspot is detrimental for grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Caelifera)

Habitat management strategies across the globe are often focusing on flagship species, such as large threatened mammals. This is also true for most protected areas of India, where large mammals such as the Tiger or Asian Elephant represent focal species of conservation management, although a shift towards other species groups can be observed in recent times. Prescribed burning is a controversially debated method to manage open habitat types. This method is practised as a tool to manage the habitat of the endangered Nilgiri tahr, Nilgiritragus hylocrius (an endemic goat) at a large scale (50 ha grids) in Eravikulam National Park of the Western Ghats (Kerala, India). However, the impact of prescribed burning on other biota of this unique environment in a global biodiversity hotspot has not been studied. We compared the impact of large-scale prescribed burning on grasshopper abundances in Eravikulam National Park with small-scale burning in Parambikulam Tiger Reserve from 2015 to 2018, to assess the impact of the different fire management practices of these reserves on this species-rich insect group. We observed a negative response of grasshoppers to burning of larger contiguous areas in terms of their recovery after fire events, whereas burning small patches in a mosaic pattern facilitated rapid recovery of grasshopper communities. Our results suggest that burning management can be optimized to benefit both, the flagship vertebrate species as well as species-rich invertebrate communities.

<b>Diversity and endemism of butterflies of montane forests of Eravikulam National Park in the Western Ghats, India</b>

In a study on the diversity and abundance of butterflies of montane forests of Eravikulam National Park in the Western Ghats, southern India, 85 species of butterflies belonging to six families were recorded. This include eight species of butterflies that are endemic to the Western Ghats and one Near-Threatened species according to IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The family Nymphalidae, the brush-footed butterflies, was the major group of butterflies seen in the montane forests of Eravikulam National Park.

Augmented cellulase production by Bacillus subtilis strain MU S1 using different statistical experimental designs.

The production of cellulase by Bacillus subtilis MU S1, a strain isolated from Eravikulam National Park, was optimized using one-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) and statistical methods. Physical parameters like incubation temperature and agitation speed were optimized using OFAT and found to be 40 °C and 150 rpm, respectively, whereas, medium was optimized by statistical tools. Plackett-Burman design (PBD) was employed to screen the significant variables that highly influence cellulase production. The design showed carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), yeast extract, NaCl, pH, MgSO4 and NaNO3 as the most significant components that affect cellulase production. Among these CMC, yeast extract, NaCl and pH showed positive effect whereas MgSO4 and NaNO3 were found to be significant at their lower levels. The optimum levels of the components that positively affect enzyme production were determined using response surface methodology (RSM) based on central composite design (CCD). Three factors namely CMC, yeast extract and NaCl were studied at five levels whilst pH of the medium was kept constant at 7. The optimal levels of the components were CMC (13.46 g/l), yeast extract (8.38 g/l) and NaCl (6.31 g/l) at pH 7. The maximum cellulase activity in optimized medium was 566.66 U/ml which was close to the predicted activity of 541.05 U/ml. Optimization of physical parameters and medium components showed an overall 3.2-fold increase in activity compared to unoptimized condition (179.06 U/ml).

<b>Small carnivores of the montane forests of Eravikulam National Park in the Western Ghats, India</b>

The study of small carnivores of the montane forests of Eravikulam National Park in the southern Western Ghats, India recorded nine species of small carnivores using the camera trapping technique. These include three species of Mongoose (Herpestidae), two species each of lesser cats (Felidae) and civets (Viverridae), one species each of Otter and Marten (Mustelidae). They are Stripe-necked Mongoose Herpestes vitticollis, Brown Mongoose Herpestes fuscus, Indian Grey Mongoose Herpestes edwardsii, Jungle Cat Felis chaus, Leopard Cat Prionailurus bengalensis, Common Palm Civet Paradoxurus hermaphrodites, Small Indian Civet Viverricula indica, Asian Small-clawed Otter Aonyx cinereus, and Nilgiri Marten Martes gwatkinsii. It is interesting to note that the felines (lesser cats) are the more common small carnivores in the montane forests. Felis chaus was the most abundant small carnivore, which is followed by Prionailurus bengalensis and Herpestes vitticollis. Two species are Vulnerable as per the IUCN Red List, viz., Martes gwatkinsii and Aonyx cinereus.

Potential of cross-species microsatellite markers to assess population genetics of the endemic, endangered Nilgiri tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius)

Nilgiri tahr, the only wild representative of the Caprinae subfamily in Southern India, is endangered due to population decline, decreasing range size and limited geographical distribution, which together with habitat loss and fragmentation, further reduce its long-term viability. Planning conservation and management strategies to rehabilitate the species will require information on its population status and genetics. With an objective to assess the population genetics of Nilgiri tahr, we identified a panel of polymorphic microsatellite markers that amplify across the Caprinae species. We screened 50 pellet samples collected from four herds belonging to the largest remnant population of Nilgiri tahr in Eravikulam National Park, with 19 microsatellite markers, of which 17 polymorphic markers were selected for further tests. We observed varied levels of polymorphism (2–8 alleles) and heterozygosity (0.0476–0.8421). Probability of identity for individuals was 0.0018 at 10 loci and for siblings was 0.0062 at 13 loci, signifying the usefulness of these markers to study wild herds. Overall, observed and expected heterozygosities were H o = 0.4280 ± 0.2376 and H e = 0.4464 ± 0.2265, respectively, and the F IS value was 0.0138 (p = 0.63). Our results validate the use of cross-species markers in wild populations of Nilgiri tahr to identify individuals and determine genetic diversity, which can be further used to understand population dynamics of this species.

A new species of freshwater crab,Travancoriana granulatan. sp. (Brachyura: Gecarcinucidae) from the southern Western Ghats of India

A new species of freshwater crab of the genus Travancoriana Bott, 1969, is described from the southern Western Ghats, Eravikulam National Park, Idukki district, Kerala, India. The newly described species, Travancoriana granulata n. sp., is distinct from the other five known species of this genus in some morphological features like parallel lateral margins of the frontal, anteriorly placed broad epigastric cristae, the squarish sixth male abdominal somite, and gonopod structures. A key to the species of Travancoriana is provided. (© 2013 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

A note on the migration of Dark Cerulean Jamides bochus (Stoll) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) in Eravikulam National Park, Idukki District, Kerala, India

The migratory movements of butterflies are poorly documented in Kerala. It’s for the first time the migratory behaviour of the Dark Cerulean Jamides bochus (Stoll) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) was documented from the Kerala part of Western Ghats. The migratory movement was from high ranges of Eravikulam National Park, Idukki district, Kerala at an elevation of 2085m to the lower elevations in a north-east to south-east direction.

Additional record of Resplendent Bush Frog Raorchestes resplendens (Anura: Rhacophoridae) from the Western Ghats, India

Raorchestes resplendens, a Critically Endangered rhacophorid frog until now is known only from the type locality, the Anamudi summit in Eravikulam National Park, southern Western Ghats, Kerala. This species has been sighted from a hitherto unknown location, but within the Eravikulam National Park. The current sighting location of the species is about 20km north-east to the type locality. This report increased the range of R. resplendens and also emphasis the cryptic behavior and microclimate requirement of this species. This sighting once again signifies the importance for the conservation of the high-altitude grasslands of Western Ghats.

A new species of Nyctibatrachus Boulenger (Amphibia: Anura: Nyctibatrachidae) from the Eravikulam National Park, Kerala, India

A new species of Indian nyctibatrachid frog, Nyctibatrachus sholai (Amphibia: Anura), is described based on a series of 6 specimens from the Eravikulam National Park, southern Western Ghats of the State Kerala, India. The new species is compared with all known congeners. It is diagnosed by the following combination of characters: skin with glandular corrugations with metallic green coloration; head wider than long; snout not projecting beyond mouth; irregular longitudinal corrugations on the dorsum and extending up to the dorsal surface of arms and thighs; faint supratympanic fold; a fold from posterior corner of eye to angle of jaw clearly defined; tympanum partially visible; webbing on toes ¼ th , except that on 3 rd toe reaching penultimate subarticular tubercle; tips of digits and toes flattened to form minute disks with dorsal longitudinal grooves; femoral gland present. The largest specimen in the type series has a snout-vent length of 22.1 mm. A key to the species of Nyctibatrachus is provided.

Status and distribution of Nilgiri Tahr Hemitragus hylocrius in Kerala part of the Western Ghats

© Zoo Outreach Organisation; www.zoosprint.org Manuscript 1517; Received 02 February 2006; Revised received 18 July 2006; Finally accepted 01 August 2006; Date of publication 25 August 2006 2379 September 2006 | ISSN 0973-2535 (Print edition); 0973-2551 (Online edition) ABSTRACT A survey of the threatened and endemic Nilgiri Tahr was conducted in the Western Ghats in Kerala to identify locations of distribution and to assess its status in 2001. This study reveals that the population of tahr in Kerala is highly fragmented. A total of 998 animals were estimated in 11 populations. The largest population of 696 individuals was in Eravikulam National Park. The habitat in Varayattu Mala in Neyyar is extensive and rich in food species, though the number sighted was low. The Kochu Pamba area in the fringes of the Periyar Tiger Reserve is a promising location in terms of vastness and lack of disturbance. The areas in Nelliampathi Hills are rich in terms of food abundance and extent of grasslands. However, human disturbance poses a major threat to these populations.

Incidence of gastrointestinal parasites in Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius) of the Eravikulam National Park, Kerala

In many parts of the world, the protection of wildlife has been undertaken through establishment of parks and zoological gardens. Eravikulam National Park (10°10'-10°20'N and 77°77°10'E) is situated in Devikulam Taluk of the Idukki District, Kerala and was established to protect the Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius). It was started as a sanctuary in 1975 and later in 1978, was declared a National Park considering its ecological, faunal, floral, geo-morphological and zoological significance. It covers an area of 97km2 of rolling grasslands and high level sholas and is surrounded by tea plantations of Kannan Devan Tea of Tata group. About 5km2 area of the Park is set aside for the public where the goats are also seen.

Tourism development and its impact on endangered species: A case study of Nilgiri Thar

Munnar is one of the most important Hill Resort of Southern Peninsular India. It is famous for its wide and varied species of flora and fauna. The most important rare species of flora is the Neelakurinji which booms once in 12 years, and fauna is the endangered species of rare Nilgiri Thar, Nilgiri Langur etc. Nilgiri Thar is found only in the Eravikulam National Park. Tourist flow to the sanctuary had adversely affected the lives of the animals especially the Nilgiri Thar in the Eravikulam National Park. After observing the animals, some of the tourists start teasing them and even throws stone and bottles at them. Even certain circumstances had resulted in the injury of the animals. It was observed that the tourists who frequented the sanctuary are the domestic doesn't show any serious interest on the habitats of these rare species. Majority of them depended on the outside economy for their basic needs which also resulted in a diminished flow of income to the local economy. Heavy rush of tourist traffic and vehicular emissions had adversely affected the habitat of the Nilgiri Thar. Various studies had pointed out that, higher the altitude, there will be more than double the impact of pollution in the area. As they are considered as one of the pull factor in the tourism development in the area, sincere effort is needed for further protecting this rare and endangered species of earth.