Equine Veterinary Practitioners Research Articles

Use of transrectal transducers in abdominal ultrasonography of horses: A review

SummaryAbdominal ultrasonography is an important diagnostic tool in the evaluation of colic, yet primary care equine veterinary practitioners are often limited by availability and access to low‐frequency (2–5 MHz curvilinear array or sector) abdominal transducers. Use of high‐frequency (5–10 MHz linear array) transrectal transducers has not previously been compared with use of abdominal transducers for transcutaneous abdominal ultrasonography. One recent pilot study established that there was no significant difference in organ detection by the two transducers on the right side of the equine abdomen, but the stomach, liver and kidney on the left side were less likely to be detected using the transrectal transducer in healthy horses. A clinical study found that the transrectal transducer can be used successfully using the FLASH protocol in horses presenting with colic, with high‐quality images that detected abnormalities of the peritoneal fluid, small intestine and large intestine. The transrectal transducer had decreased visualisation of the stomach and left kidney and was less likely to detect pathology surrounding these organs. This is the first series of studies to evaluate use of transrectal transducers in abdominal ultrasonography of the horse, a tool that is readily accessible to the field practitioner.

A survey of the radiation safety practices of veterinary practitioners during portable equine radiography in Ireland.

Veterinary practitioners and other personnel involved in the examination are exposed to ionizing radiation while performing portable radiographs on horses. An online survey was distributed to all Veterinary Council of Ireland-registered practices where the self-reported practice profile is at least 20% equine work. The survey contained questions relating to radiation safety training, protocols, personal dosimetry and lead protection usage, repeat exposures, sedation, and personnel roles during the examination. The aim of the survey was to document the current radiation safety practices of equine veterinary practitioners during portable radiography. The results showed that although adherence to guidance set out by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is reasonably good, compliance rates can be improved. Personal dosemeter usage and repeat rate reduction could particularly benefit from further improvement. This is of the utmost importance in ensuring that occupational radiation exposure to veterinary practitioners is kept to an absolute minimum during their daily practice.

Development, refinement, and validation of an equine musculoskeletal pain scale.

Musculoskeletal disease is a common cause of chronic pain that is often overlooked and inadequately treated, impacting the quality of life of humans and horses alike. Lameness due to musculoskeletal pain is prevalent in horses, but the perception of pain by owners is low compared with veterinary diagnosis. Therefore, this study aims to establish and validate a pain scale for chronic equine orthopaedic pain that is user-friendly for horse owners and veterinarians to facilitate the identification and monitoring of pain in horses. The newly developed musculoskeletal pain scale (MPS) was applied to 154 horses (mean age 20 ± 6.4 years SD) housed at an equine sanctuary, of which 128 (83%) suffered from chronic orthopaedic disease. To complete the MPS, the horses were observed and videotaped from a distance while at rest in their box or enclosure. In addition, they received a complete clinical and orthopaedic exam. The need for veterinary intervention to address pain (assessed and executed by the sanctuary independent from this study) was used as a longitudinal health outcome to determine the MPS's predictive validity. To determine the interrater agreement, the MPS was scored for a randomly selected subset of 30 horses by six additional blinded raters, three equine veterinary practitioners, and three experienced equestrians. An iterative process was used to refine the tool based on improvements in the MPS's correlation with lameness evaluated at the walk and trot, predictive validity for longitudinal health outcomes, and interrater agreement. The intraclass correlation improved from 0.77 of the original MPS to 0.88 of the refined version (95% confidence interval: 0.8-0.94). The refined MPS correlated significantly with lameness at the walk (r = 0.44, p = 0.001) and trot (r = 0.5, p < 0.0001). The refined MPS significantly differed between horses that needed veterinary intervention (mean MPS = 8.6) and those that did not (mean MPS = 5.0, p = 0.0007). In summary, the MPS showed good interrater repeatability between expert and lay scorers, significant correlation with lameness at the walk and trot, and good predictive validity for longitudinal health outcomes, confirming its ability to identify horses with orthopaedic health problems.

A survey on Flemish veterinary practitioners’ experience with stem cell therapy to treat equine tendon injuries

Horses in all equestrian disciplines are suffering from tendon injuries followed by several months of rehabilitation. Additionally, the scar tissue formed after injury is of inferior quality, resulting in high re-injury rates. Conventional treatments include rest, controlled exercise and anti-inflammatory drugs administration. In order to improve tissue regeneration and prevent reinjury, biological treatments, such as mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are gaining popularity. In this survey, the use of MSCs as treatment for tendon injuries by Flemish equine veterinary practitioners was evaluated. Although the respondents were in general unsatisfied with conventional therapy, it remains the preferred treatment. Approximately half of the survey population (47%) have already used MSCs therapy to treat tendon injuries. The other participants reported the high costs and complexity as major limitations. According to the respondents, the availability of strong scientific evidence of the mechanisms of action, accompanied by clear practical guidelines, could help to increase the practical application of MSC therapy.

Vitrification and direct warming in iso-osmotic holding medium of equine in vitro embryos supports competitive pregnancy rates

Improved efficiency of ovum pick-up (OPU) and intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) resulted to a steep increase in the number of in vitro produced (IVP) equine embryos worldwide. These IVP blastocysts are routinely cryopreserved and both slow freezing and vitrification result in high pregnancy rates. The use of minimal volume cryodevices and fast, multistep warming protocols can be challenging for veterinary practitioners receiving vitrified embryos, but direct warming in embryo holding medium supports embryo viability (Canesin et al. Theriogenology. 2020;151:151-158). The aim of this study was to compare pregnancy rates in a clinical OPU-ICSI program using a three-step vitrification/warming protocol vs. a commercial vitrification kit and direct warming in embryo holding medium. Embryos were produced in autumn and winter of 2021-2022 by OPU-ICSI (Papas et al. Animals. 2021;11:2004). Day of vitrification (7-12 post ICSI) was similar for both vitrification groups. Blastocysts were vitrified in a minimal volume on a Cryolock (Irvine Scientific) following two methods: (1) a three-step protocol (n=21): holding in basal vitrification medium (BVM; DMEM-F12 with 20% FCS), vitrification in BVM with 1.5M ethylene glycol (5 min), followed by BVM with 7M ethylene glycol and 0.6M galactose (40 s), and warming in warming medium (WM; DPBS with 0.1% glucose,36 mg/L pyruvate, and 0.4% BSA) with 0.3M sucrose (1 min), followed by WM with 0.15M sucrose (5 min) and holding in WM (5 min), all performed at 38.2°C (Choi and Hinrichs. Theriogenology. 2017; 87:48-54); (2) direct warming (n=21): vitrification at 23°C with a commercial VIT-Kit (Minitube, Germany) in VS1 (5 min), VS2 (5 min) and VS3 (40 s), containing increasing concentrations of glycerol and/or ethylene glycol, based on Eldridge-Panuska et al. (Theriogenology. 2005; 63:1308-1319), and direct warming at 38°C for 5 min in 4 ml of Emcare holding medium (Spervital, The Netherlands). For both protocols, warmed embryos were washed four times in Emcare and transferred immediately to a day 4 recipient mare. The effect of vitrification method on pregnancy rate at 14 days and 25 days was determined using binomial logistic regression analyses. Pregnancy rates at 14 and 25 days were respectively 66.7% and 47.6% for the three-step method and 76.2% and 52.4% for the direct warming. No difference was found between the two methods (p=0.496 and p=0.882, respectively). In conclusion, vitrification and warming of IVP blastocysts using commercial media and direct warming supports pregnancy and provides an easy method for embryo warming and transfer by equine veterinary practitioners.

Long-Term Follow-Up of Restorations of Equine Cheek Teeth Infundibula (2006-2017).

Background:Caries of the infundibula of equine cheek teeth can lead to significant dental disease including increased attritional wear, pulpar and apical disease, secondary sinusitis, and dental fracture. Restorations of cavities of equine cheek teeth infundibula have been performed since 1889. Recent advances in dental materials, instrumentation, and techniques have facilitated the use of dental restoration techniques by equine veterinary practitioners. No studies to date have demonstrated the safety or efficacy of restorations of equine cheek teeth infundibula.Objectives:To assess the long-term results of restorations of equine cheek teeth affected by infundibular caries, to report on the safety of the procedure, and to give guidelines for future restorative therapies.Study Design:Retrospective analysis of results of clinical and oroscopic examination of horses that underwent infundibular restoration procedures between 2006 and 2017.Methods:A total of 223 infundibula in 185 maxillary cheek teeth in 92 horses were restored using a variety of dental materials including glass ionomer cement, flowable and compactible resin composites. The time between restoration and re-examination was recorded along with findings of clinical signs in the interim, restorative material loss, and any further pathological changes of the teeth including caries progression, fracture, or apical disease. Follow-up examinations were performed over two study periods 2006–2012 and in 2017.Results:Over the full study period, 99% of treated horses available for follow-up examinations had no adverse clinical signs or developed any abnormalities of restored teeth observable on oroscopic examination. Of horses re-examined, 83% of restorations were shown to have minimal or no loss of the restoration material, with occlusal surface wear visibly comparable to other adjacent maxillary teeth. Statistical analysis showed success of the procedure was related to the restorative material used, the restoration technique, and the caries grade present at the time of restoration (grade 3 is more successful than grade 2).Main Limitations:There are no case controls in this study and therefore it is not clear if restoration of equine infundibula is a consistently beneficial procedure, or at which grade of caries progression restorations should be performed for optimum benefit. The procedures were not re-examined at consistent regular times creating some difficulties in standardizing results. Re-examinations of treated horses did not consistently include radiography or computed tomography and therefore some apical changes may have occurred in treated teeth without visual oroscopic or external clinical signs.Conclusion:Restoration of equine infundibula using materials developed for human dentistry including flowable resin composites is a safe and long-lasting procedure and appears to prevent the development of further pathological changes including apical infection and dental fracture.

A Questionnaire Study on the Use of Complementary and Alternative Veterinary Medicine for Horses in Sweden.

Simple SummaryAs the scientific basis for most methods used in CAVM (complementary and alternative veterinary medicine) is not well-founded, there is a need for evaluation of the efficacy as well as safety of many methods. In order to better understand what evidence and knowledge are most urgently needed, we must know what methods are used, by whom and for what reasons. We asked Swedish horse owners, equine veterinary practitioners and CAVM therapists about their use of CAVM. CAVM appears to be common in Swedish horses; most horse owners used it for both prevention and treatment of injuries. The two most frequently used methods were stretching and massage. There is some collaboration between equine veterinary practitioners and CAVM therapists, which might provide an opportunity for proper diagnoses by veterinarians before CAVM therapy. Most of the study participants wanted CAVM to be more regulated, to facilitate communication and ensure animal welfare.Complementary or alternative veterinary medicine (CAVM) includes treatment methods with limited scientific evidence. Swedish veterinarians are legally obliged to base treatments and recommendations on science or well-documented experience, but most CAVM methods are not well documented in animals. The aim of this study was to explore the use of CAVM in Swedish horses. Electronic questionnaires were distributed to horse owners, equine veterinary practitioners and CAVM therapists. Of the 204 responding horse owners, 83% contacted a veterinarian first in case of lameness, while 15% contacted a CAVM therapist. For back pain, 52% stated a CAVM therapist as their first contact and 45% a veterinarian. Only 10–15% of the respondents did not use any CAVM method for prevention or after injury. Of the 100 veterinarians who responded, more than half did not use CAVM themselves but 55% did refer to people who offer this service. Of the 124 responding CAVM therapists, 72% recommended their clients to seek veterinary advice when needed, 50% received referrals from a veterinarian, and 25% did not collaborate with a veterinarian. The two most common methods used by the respondents in all three categories were stretching and massage. Most veterinarians and therapists were not content with the current lack of CAVM regulation.

Influence of multiple factors on hematologic reference intervals in horses residing in livery yards in Spain.

The hemogram is a routine analysis for equine veterinary practitioners in the assessment of patient clinical status. Reference intervals (RIs) of hematologic constituents vary according to different horse populations and are often described for a particular breed or horse type. The aims of this study were to determine RIs for hematologic constituents in a mixed-breed horse population residing in livery yards in central Spain and evaluate the associations between estimated RIs and multiple phenotypic and management characteristics. A total of 122 healthy horses from different breeds in central Spain were included in the study. RIs were calculated following the American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology guidelines. Significant associations between red blood cell (RBC) counts, packed cell volumes (PCVs), hemoglobin (HGB) concentrations, white blood cell (WBC) counts, and phenotypic and management features were evaluated using a novel multiple linear regression model analysis. Reference intervals were 5.8-10.0×1012 /L for RBCs, 97-164g/L for HGB, 0.27-0.46L/L for PCVs, 37.1-53.6fL for MCVs, 3.8-10.8×109 /L for WBCs, and 76.1-377.9×109 /L for platelet counts. The season, discipline, and housing when and where the horses were sampled were factors significantly associated with WBC counts and/or red cell values (HGB, RBC, and PCV). Hematologic RIs for these horses were comparable to the RIs of warm-blooded horses and influenced by husbandry. These location-specific RIs should allow veterinary practitioners to make better-informed decisions for their patients residing in livery yards.

Ways to Improve Acupuncture Outcomes in Equine Practice

Acupuncture is the most extensively researched modality under the umbrella of both traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and traditional Chinese veterinary medicine (TCVM). It has been demonstrated that it induces local, segmental, central and autonomic effects, many of which have the potential to strongly decrease nociceptive signals and pain perception. Acupuncture has been used for many equine clinical conditions including lameness and is now a familiar treatment modality to both horse owners and equine veterinary practitioners. This paper will review the main factors that impact clinical results, describe treatment plans for common lameness presentations, and outline several case examples.

Retrospective case series to identify the most common conditions seen ‘out-of-hours’ by first-opinion equine veterinary practitioners

BackgroundThe study aim was to describe conditions seen ‘out-of-hours’ in equine practice.MethodsThis was a retrospective case series of first opinion ‘out-of-hours’ cases seen at two equine practices between 2011 and...

Occupational risks of working with horses: A questionnaire survey of equine veterinary surgeons

SummaryLimited scientific evidence from other countries and plenty of anecdotal evidence suggest that the risk of personal injury in equine veterinary practice is high. However, a comprehensive description of the types of risks to which equine veterinary surgeons expose themselves has not previously been available. The aim of this study was to quantify the number, types and causes of personal injury sustained by equine veterinary practitioners in the UK. An interview (and online) questionnaire‐based survey was conducted with a large number of equine veterinary practitioners. Questions were designed to identify the number of injuries sustained during the respondent's career to date and to acquire details of the worst injury sustained including cause, treatment and short‐ and long‐term outcomes. A total of 2292 injuries were reported by 620 respondents, equating to one injury every 3 years 7 months in those respondents. Most ‘worst’ injuries occurred while the veterinary surgeon was conducting most common reasons for equine examination. The most frequent sites of this ‘worst’ injury were the leg and the head with the main cause of injury being a kick with hindlimb. Of all reports, 33% of injuries resulted in a hospital admission of which 43% required hospital admission for longer than 24 h and 7% of reports resulted in a loss of consciousness. The main limitation of this work is the descriptive nature of the survey. It would be unwise to assume that the procedures identified as being most commonly associated with injury in the study are more risky than other less commonly conducted procedures. In conclusion, equine veterinary practice is a risky profession. Greater emphasis on and awareness of methods to avoid or mitigate risk should be a priority for anyone working with horses and their employers.

Antimicrobials used for surgical prophylaxis by equine veterinary practitioners in Australia.

Antimicrobials are widely used in Australian veterinary practices, but no investigation into the classes of antimicrobials used, or the appropriateness of use in horses, has been conducted. The aim of the study was to describe antimicrobial use for surgical prophylaxis in equine practice in Australia. Cross-sectional questionnaire survey. An online questionnaire was used to document antimicrobial usage patterns. Information solicited in the questionnaire included demographic details of the respondents, the frequency with which antimicrobials were used for specific surgical conditions (including the dose, timing and duration of therapy) and practice antimicrobial use policies and sources of information about antimicrobials and their uses. A total of 337 members of the Australian veterinary profession completed the survey. Generally, the choice of antimicrobial was appropriate for the specified equine surgical condition, but the dose and duration of therapy varied greatly. While there was poor optimal compliance with British Equine Veterinary Association guidelines in all scenarios (range 1-15%), except removal of a nonulcerated dermal mass (42%), suboptimal compliance (compliant antimicrobial drug selection but inappropriate timing, dose or duration of therapy) was moderate for all scenarios (range 48-68%), except for an uninfected contaminated wound over the thorax, where both optimal and suboptimal compliance was very poor (1%). Veterinarians practicing at a university hospital had higher odds of compliance than general practice veterinarians (Odds ratio 3.2, 95% CI, 1.1-8.9, P = 0.03). Many survey responses were collected at conferences which may introduce selection bias, as veterinarians attending conferences may be more likely to have been exposed to contemporary antimicrobial prescribing recommendations. Antimicrobial use guidelines need to be developed and promoted to improve the responsible use of antimicrobials in equine practice in Australia. An emphasis should be placed on antimicrobial therapy for wounds and appropriate dosing for procaine penicillin.

The sero-prevalence and sero-incidence of African horse sickness and equine encephalosis in selected horse and donkey populations in Zimbabwe.

Sentinel herds and samples submitted by private equine practitioners were used to determine the sero-prevalence and sero-incidence of African horse sickness virus (AHSV) and equine encephalosis virus (EEV) in horse and donkey populations in the Highveld region of Zimbabwe. The sero-prevalence and sero-incidence of antibodies against these viruses were determined using the competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the detection of serum antibodies. In donkeys, the median sero-prevalence of AHSV antibodies, across the three rainy seasons under study, was 75% (inter quartile range [IQR] 67–83), with a seasonal median sero-incidence of 45% (IQR 40–63). In horses, the median sero-prevalence of EEV antibodies was 63% (IQR 21–73), with a median seasonal sero-incidence of 10.5% (IQR 10–14), while in donkeys the median sero-prevalence of EEV antibodies was 80% (IQR 67–90), with a median seasonal sero-incidence of 50% (IQR 40–60). This study highlighted the significant levels of exposure of donkeys to AHSV and horses and donkeys to EEV in Zimbabwe despite equine encephalosis remaining unreported by Zimbabwean veterinarians to date. Most seroconversions in sentinel herd animals to AHSV and EEV occurred towards the end of the rainy season in March, April and May corresponding to the time of the year when the Culicoides vectors are in high abundance. In order to determine the clinical significance of these infections, blood and spleen samples, submitted by private equine veterinary practitioners over a 5-year period, from horses showing characteristic clinical signs of African horse sickness were tested for the presence of viral antigen using the antigen capture ELISA. The median sero-prevalence of AHSV antigen in horses recorded from these samples was 38% (IQR 33–88). The predominant AHSV antigen from these samples was serotype 7 (33%) followed by serotype 2 (26%) and serotypes 4 and 8 (16% each). African horse sickness virus serotypes 3 and 9, identified in this study, had not been previously reported in Zimbabwe.

The importance of learning theory and equitation science to the veterinarian

The work of veterinarians when handling horses exposes them to high risk of injury. Among equine practitioners, the incidences of work-related injuries and work days lost due to injury are high. Equine veterinary practitioners’ knowledge of learning theory and equitation science is minimal. Increasingly veterinarians are expected to provide a leadership role in animal welfare, including behaviour medicine. However, due to deficiencies in veterinary training, which traditionally focuses on physical aspects of health, veterinarians may be under equipped to deal effectively with all aspects of animal behaviour. Advancing veterinarians’ understanding of the application of learning principles for horses would improve safety, increase ease of handling and restraint during clinical procedures and increase clinical efficacy. As the risk of injury declines, so too would the risk of litigation. Through example, veterinarians are ideally placed to influence and educate equestrian personnel in best practice handling and restraint methods. Training methods that do not align with the horse’s natural learning abilities reduce the likelihood of optimal performance and increase the frequency of problem behaviours as well as jeopardising equine welfare. Detection of inappropriate training practices is an essential part of the veterinarian’s role in identifying and addressing causes of sub-optimal performance in the equine athlete. Poor performance and problem behaviours that result from the use of inappropriate training practices may contribute significantly to the current levels of wastage in the horse industry. Education of veterinarians in equitation science could play a pivotal role in reducing wastage and improving horse welfare globally.

Evidence in Practice - A Pilot Study Leveraging Companion Animal and Equine Health Data from Primary Care Veterinary Clinics in New Zealand.

Veterinary practitioners have extensive knowledge of animal health from their day-to-day observations of clinical patients. There have been several recent initiatives to capture these data from electronic medical records for use in national surveillance systems and clinical research. In response, an approach to surveillance has been evolving that leverages existing computerized veterinary practice management systems to capture animal health data recorded by veterinarians. Work in the United Kingdom within the VetCompass program utilizes routinely recorded clinical data with the addition of further standardized fields. The current study describes a prototype system that was developed based on this approach. In a 4-week pilot study in New Zealand, clinical data on presentation reasons and diagnoses from a total of 344 patient consults were extracted from two veterinary clinics into a dedicated database and analyzed at the population level. New Zealand companion animal and equine veterinary practitioners were engaged to test the feasibility of this national practice-based health information and data system. Strategies to ensure continued engagement and submission of quality data by participating veterinarians were identified, as were important considerations for transitioning the pilot program to a sustainable large-scale and multi-species surveillance system that has the capacity to securely manage big data. The results further emphasized the need for a high degree of usability and smart interface design to make such a system work effectively in practice. The geospatial integration of data from multiple clinical practices into a common operating picture can be used to establish the baseline incidence of disease in New Zealand companion animal and equine populations, detect unusual trends that may indicate an emerging disease threat or welfare issue, improve the management of endemic and exotic infectious diseases, and support research activities. This pilot project is an important step toward developing a national surveillance system for companion animals and equines that moves beyond emerging infectious disease detection to provide important animal health information that can be used by a wide range of stakeholder groups, including participating veterinary practices.

Safely introducing horses to novel objects: A pilot investigation into presentation techniques

The work of veterinarians when handling horses exposes them to high risk of injury. Among equine practitioners, the incidences of work-related injuries and work days lost due to injury are high. Equine veterinary practitioners’ knowledge of learning theory and equitation science is minimal. Increasingly veterinarians are expected to provide a leadership role in animal welfare, including behaviour medicine. However, due to deficiencies in veterinary training, which traditionally focuses on physical aspects of health, veterinarians may be under equipped to deal effectively with all aspects of animal behaviour. Advancing veterinarians’ understanding of the application of learning principles for horses would improve safety, increase ease of handling and restraint during clinical procedures and increase clinical efficacy. As the risk of injury declines, so too would the risk of litigation. Through example, veterinarians are ideally placed to influence and educate equestrian personnel in best practice handling and restraint methods. Training methods that do not align with the horse’s natural learning abilities reduce the likelihood of optimal performance and increase the frequency of problem behaviours as well as jeopardising equine welfare. Detection of inappropriate training practices is an essential part of the veterinarian’s role in identifying and addressing causes of sub-optimal performance in the equine athlete. Poor performance and problem behaviours that result from the use of inappropriate training practices may contribute significantly to the current levels of wastage in the horse industry. Education of veterinarians in equitation science could play a pivotal role in reducing wastage and improving horse welfare globally.

A survey on parasite management by equine veterinarians highlights the need for a regulation change

IntroductionIn-depth knowledge of the use of anthelminthics in the field, especially by veterinarians, is required to design more sustainable parasite control strategies.Materials and methodsAn online survey was sent by e-mail...

Behaviour of equine influenza virus in a naïve population: a practitioner's perspective

We describe the behaviour of equine influenza (EI) virus infection in a naïve population as observed by equine veterinary practitioners. The clinical signs displayed by infected horses and the highly contagious nature of the disease are discussed, as well as the treatment and management of infected horses.

The search for a strangles vaccine

The search for a strangles vaccine