Equine Infectious Anemia Research Articles

Contribution to a study on the seroprevalence of Equine Infectious Anemia in Tiaret province northwestern Algeria

A serological survey was conducted in equines in the province of Tiaret, in order to estimate the prevalence level of infection of equine infectious anemia (EIA). This survey has allowed to study the rate of infection by EIAV equine, to clarify the current situation of the EIA in the province of Tiaret, constitute a first step towards a national approach to control the emergence of this disease. Serum samples were collected from 293 horses and donkeys 30 and tested by ELISA technique. All results obtained by the ELISA test proved totally negative for all the samples studied. The equine infectious anemia is a topical disease. It is not well known and rarely sought on the ground. Yet the consequences of an outbreak can be very heavy on the economy.

Fluorescence Polarization Assay for Infection Diagnostics: A Review

Rapid and specific diagnosis is necessary for both the treatment and prevention of infectious diseases. Bacteria and viruses that enter the bloodstream can trigger a strong immune response in infected animals and humans. The fluorescence polarization assay (FPA) is a rapid and accurate method for detecting specific antibodies in the blood that are produced in response to infection. One of the first examples of FPA is the non-competitive test for detecting brucellosis in animals, which was followed by the development of other protocols for detecting various infections. Fluorescently labeled polysaccharides (in the case of brucellosis and salmonellosis) or specific peptides (in the case of tuberculosis and salmonellosis, etc.) can be used as biorecognition elements for detecting infections. The availability of new laboratory equipment and mobile devices for fluorescence polarization measurements outside the laboratory has stimulated the development of new fluorescence polarization assays (FPAs) and the emergence of commercial kits on the market for the detection of brucellosis, tuberculosis, and equine infectious anemia viruses. It has been shown that, in addition to antibodies, the FPA method can detect both viruses and nucleic acids. The development of more specific and sensitive biomarkers is essential for the diagnosis of infections and therapy monitoring. This review summarizes studies published between 2003 and 2023 that focus on the detection of infections using FPA. Furthermore, it demonstrates the potential for using new biorecognition elements (e.g., aptamers, proteins, peptides) and the combined use of FPA with new technologies, such as PCR and CRISPR/Cas12a systems, for detecting various infectious agents.

Development and evaluation of a test strip for the rapid detection of antibody against equine infectious anaemia virus

Development and evaluation of a test strip for the rapid detection of antibody against equine infectious anaemia virus

Extensive survey of equine infectious diseases in Argentina: equine infectious anaemia, glanders, surra, and dourine

Extensive survey of equine infectious diseases in Argentina: equine infectious anaemia, glanders, surra, and dourine

Innovative purification method for equine infectious anaemia virus NGS analysis

Innovative purification method for equine infectious anaemia virus <scp>NGS</scp> analysis

Development and evaluation of a real‐time quantitative PCR for the detection of equine infectious anaemia virus

Development and evaluation of a real‐time quantitative PCR for the detection of equine infectious anaemia virus

Rapid Detection of Getah Virus Antibodies in Horses Using a Recombinant E2 Protein-Based Immunochromatographic Strip.

The prevalence and impact of Getah virus (GETV) are significant concerns in China. GETV can infect a wide range of animals, including horses, pigs, sheep, cattle, birds, and humans, resulting in substantial losses in the livestock and agricultural industries. GETV infection can cause the development of ulcers and inflammation in the mouth and gums of horses, which result in pain and discomfort and lead to symptoms such as reduced appetite, drooling, and difficulty chewing. As a result, there is a pressing need for efficient and rapid disease diagnosis methods. However, the currently available diagnostic methods have limitations in terms of operational time, equipment, and the experience of the individuals using them. In this study, a rapid, specific, and sensitive detection method was developed using a colloidal gold-based immunochromatographic strip (ICS) for the detection of antibodies against GETV in horses. To prepare the ICS, the antigen domain of the E2 glycoprotein of GETV was expressed using the Escherichia coli expression system after analysis with DNAstar v7.1 software. The nitrocellulose membrane was coated with rE2 protein or SPA to form the test line and control line, respectively. After optimizing the reaction conditions, the sensitivity, specificity, and repeatability of the strip were verified. The results showed that the test strip had a detection limit of up to 1:320 dilutions for GETV-positive serum, with no cross-reactivity observed with other equine-susceptible pathogens such as equine arteritis virus (EAV), equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-I), equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV), equine influenza virus (EIV), African horse sickness virus (AHSV), and Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). Furthermore, the ICS exhibited a concordance rate of 94.0% when testing 182 clinical serum samples compared to the virus neutralization test. Overall, this ICS diagnosis method will be an effective tool for the rapid detection of GETV in the field.

Spatiotemporal analysis of equine infectious anemia and prediction of risk areas in Europe

Equine Infectious Anemia (EIA) is a vector-borne persistent viral infection in equine animals. The EIA is characterized by recurrent fever, thrombocytopenia, depression, anemia, rapid weight loss, and lower body edema. Control of EIA is achieved through the elimination or isolation of infected animals, resulting in significant economic losses. In recent years, many countries in Europe have experienced outbreaks of EIA, which could potentially develop into a new wave of epidemic and pose a significant threat to the healthy development of the equine industry. This study utilized spatiotemporal analysis techniques and ecological niche modeling to investigate the spatiotemporal distribution characteristics of historical EIA outbreaks and predict risk areas for EIA occurrence in Europe. Spatiotemporal analysis results indicate that from 2005 to 2023, the EIA outbreaks in Europe exhibit five significant spatiotemporal clusters, with hotspots concentrated in southeastern France and northwestern Italy. Ecological niche modeling reveals that western, central, and southern Europe are high-risk areas for EIA outbreaks. Annual mean temperature, annual precipitation, and horse density are important variables that influence the occurrence of EIA. The results of this study can provide decision-makers with valuable insights, helping with EIA monitoring and resource allocation.

Health of Polo Horses.

This literature review analyzes the historical development of polo, its organizational structure, the course of the game, as well as the breeding, rearing, and training practices of polo horses. Frequently occurring ailments, such as musculoskeletal injuries, respiratory diseases, and internal illnesses, are highlighted. Lameness is a major problem, with injuries to the superficial digital flexor tendon being the most common cause. Other notable diseases include exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH), myositis, rhabdomyolysis, and equine infectious anemia (EIA). To ensure the welfare of polo horses, effective prevention and management strategies are crucial. These include proper training, the adaptation of the ground surface, appropriate shoeing, and compliance with animal welfare guidelines and association rules. Collaboration between associations, players, organizers, and veterinarians is crucial. Promoting responsible management practices and raising awareness among stakeholders can help ensure that polo continues to thrive while maintaining high animal welfare standards.

Undetection of vector-borne viruses in equids of Galapagos Islands.

Domestic species, including equids, were introduced in the Galapagos Islands in the XIX century. Equine vector-borne diseases are circulating in South America but their occurrence in the Galapagos Island was unknown. The objective of this study was to detect the occurrence of West Nile virus (WNV), Usutu virus (USUV) and equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) in the four Galapagos Islands raising equids if they were present at a prevalence >1%. Serum samples were collected from 411 equids belonging to 124 owners from April to July 2019. All the results were negative to the ELISA tests used suggesting that WNV, USUV and EIAV are not circulating in the equine population of the Galapagos Islands.

Determining optimal surveillance techniques for the microbial community on human skin using RNAseq data analysis

Background: The largest organ in the human body, the skin, serves as a physical barrier to the outside world. It also houses millions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi that protect us against invading pathogens or result in altered physiology and disease. These microorganisms can contribute to normal skin health or predispose individuals to pathogenic disorders. Surveillance and observation of the microbiome can give insight into identifying common taxa that compose our skin and indications of new or changing pathogens. However, to do this effciently, it is important to understand what can be detected from skin samples and the differences we may see using various collection methods. Methods: We used publicly available NCBI SRA RNAseq bioprojects that queried “skin,” processing 132 bioprojects with 8,274 samples. Using FastQC, Salmon, KRAKEN2, and MiCXR/Immunarch, we aimed to analyze the quality, human gene transcripts, infections, and B/T- cell responses, respectively. We aimed to identify what skin sampling method provides the best data on the skin microbiome, human gene mapping, and B/T-cell immune repertoire. This project is based on observational methods, not a specific hypothesis. Results: From the KRAKEN2 data, there were 14,383 viruses and 14,691 bacteria assessed through all “skin” BioProjects. From the extensive data pool, we identified unique BioProject signatures for protest (Leishmania), bacteria (Mycoplasma), and viruses (HSV1 dose dependencies, HPV in human warts, Chinese transmitted tick viruses, Human T-cell lymphotropic virus, and the first-ever human case of equine infectious anemia virus). The use of read mapping and coverage is critical to confirming the presence of foreign species, noted through the observation of T4 DNA ligase RNA presence prior to 2018 RNA sequencing. Once pathogens were detected, cellular response mapping was developed, yielding insights into the pathophysiology of multiple viral infections of the skin and sex differences. Conclusion: Detecting a wide variety of microorganisms on the skin can give insight into dermatological pathologies and skin physiology. Using the publicly available skin datasets, we see many unique stories of microorganisms in the skin. This big data mapping strategy highlights the importance of broad observational mapping, possible with cutting-edge sequencing tools. This work was supported by the MI-SAPPHIRE program of MDHHS and the CDC. This is the full abstract presented at the American Physiology Summit 2024 meeting and is only available in HTML format. There are no additional versions or additional content available for this abstract. Physiology was not involved in the peer review process.

Equine Infectious Anaemia: The Active Surveillance of an Entire Equid Population Reduces the Occurrence of the Infection

Equine infectious anaemia (EIA) is a life-long viral infection affecting equids, transmitted mechanically by biting flies and iatrogenic means. Despite its global distribution, active surveillance is limited, with passive clinical surveillance or control of specific equine sectors prevailing. In Italy, a national surveillance plan in horse, donkey, and mule populations has been established and includes mandatory passive and active surveillance through annual serological tests. During 2007–2010, the agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID) test served as both screening and confirmatory tests. Since 2011, a three-tier diagnostic pathway was introduced, utilizing the ELISA test for screening, AGID as the confirmatory test, and the immunoblot test for cases where ELISA was positive and AGID was negative. From a total equid population of 406,000 animals, 1,337,899 samples were analysed during 2007–2012, with 2,348 (0.18%) testing positive. EIA seroprevalence significantly decreased across all the species/hybrids during the study period. EIA occurrence was higher in mules (IRR = 48.90) and lower in donkeys (IRR = 0.56) compared to horses. The holding seroprevalence was 1.15%. Spatial analysis revealed clusters of infection in central Italy. These findings demonstrate that active systematic surveillance effectively reduces EIA prevalence in equid populations. Mules and working horses in wooded areas appeared to be at higher risk of infection and act as EIA reservoirs. Surveillance and control should be maintained and strengthened in these species/hybrids and in these areas to effectively control EIA. Passive surveillance alone is insufficient to eradicate the disease, and EIA remains a constant threat for the equine industry if active control is not implemented.

Surveillance and screening of Stomoxyinae flies from Mallorca Island (Spain) reveal the absence of selected pathogens but confirm the presence of the endosymbiotic bacterium Wolbachia pipientis

Adult brachycera biting flies can significantly impact livestock through both direct effects (reduction of food intake, disturbance, painful bites, and blood loss) and indirect effects (pathogen transmission), leading to substantial economic losses and production damage. This study aimed to assess the presence of blood-sucking flies in six mixed-animal farm environments on the island of Mallorca (Balearic Islands, Spain) by employing multiple trapping methods. Additionally, distribution maps of brachycera biting fly species recorded in Spain were created, based on data extracted thorough review of scientific literature and citizen digital databases. Investigation of several pathogens, including equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV), Anaplasmataceae bacteria, and piroplasm protozoa, was carried out using different PCR targets (18S rRNA, 16S rRNA, groESL, and tat genes). Citizen science databases and literature review corroborated the consistent distribution trend for two Stomoxyinae species, underscoring the importance of citizen collaboration as a complement to traditional entomological surveillance. Our study confirmed the presence of two biting Stomoxyinae species: the prevalent stable fly Stomoxys calcitrans across all sampled farms, and the horn fly Haematobia irritans, which turned out to be less abundant. DNA barcoding techniques validated the identification of the two species. Neither EIAV nor bacterial/protozoan pathogens were detected using the selected PCR targets in either fly species. However, Wolbachia pipientis (clustered in the supergroup A together with the only sequence of W. pipientis from the USA) was identified through PCR targeting 16S rRNA, groESL and wsp genes in all pools of H. irritans (n = 13) collected from two of the examined farms. This study represents the first attempt to investigate pathogens in Stomoxyinae biting flies in Spain. The discovery of the endosymbiotic Wolbachia organism in H. irritans represents the first record in Spain and the second from Europe. This finding holds significant implications for future research on the applications of this bacterium in biocontrol programs.

Development and evaluation of a test strip for the rapid detection of antibody against equine infectious anemia virus

Equine infectious anemia (EIA) is a contagious disease of horses caused by the equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV). The clinical signs at the acute phase include intermittent high fever, thrombocytopenia, hemorrhage, edema, and anemia. The clinical signs at chronic and relapsing subclinical levels include emaciation and progressive weakness. Surviving horses become lifelong carriers because of the integration of the viral genome into that of the host, and these horses can produce and transmit the virus to other animals. This increases the difficulty of imposing practical control measures to prevent epidemics of this disease. Serological tests measuring the antibodies in equine sera are considered to be a reliable tool for the long-term monitoring of EIA. However, the standard serological tests for EIV either have low sensitivity (e.g., agar gel immunodiffusion test, AGID) or are time consuming to perform (e.g., ELISA and western blotting). The development of a rapid and simple method for detecting the disease is therefore critical to control the spread of EIA. In this study, we designed and developed a colloidal gold immunochromatographic (GICG) test strip to detect antibodies against EIAV based on the double-antigen sandwich. Both the p26 and gp45 proteins were used as the capture antigens, which may help to improve the positive detection rate of the strip. We found that the sensitivity of the test strip was 8 to 16 times higher than those of two commercially available ELISA tests and 128 to 256 times higher than AGID, but 8 to 16 times lower than that of western blotting. The strip has good specificity and stability. When serum samples from experimental horses immunized with the attenuated EIAV vaccine (n = 31) were tested, the results of the test strip showed 100% coincidence with those from NECVB-cELISA and 70.97% with AGID. When testing clinical serum samples (n = 1014), the test strip surprisingly provided greater sensitivity and a higher number of “true positive” results than other techniques. Therefore, we believe that the GICG test strip has demonstrated great potential in the field trials as a simple and effective tool for the detection of antibodies against EIAV.Key points• A colloidal gold immunochromatographic (GICG) fast test strip was developed with good specificity, sensitivity, stability, and repeatability• The test strip can be used in point-of-care testing for the primary screening of EIAV antibodies• Both the p26 and gp45 proteins were used as the capture antigens, giving a high positive detection rate in the testing of experimentally infected animal and field samples

Epidemiological situation of Equine Infectious Anemia in the state of Paraná, Brazil

To assist decision making regarding the National Equine Health Program in the state of Paraná, a study was conducted to estimate the prevalence of infected farms and seropositive animals for Equine Infectious Anemia (EIA) and also identify possible risk factors for the disease. The state was divided into three regions, within which about 300 farms were randomly selected. On the selected farms, a minimum number of animals aged 6 months or older were examined to characterize them as infected or free of EIA. In the sampled farms, an epidemiological questionnaire was applied to investigate possible associations between the disease and its characteristics, including sanitary practices and livestock management. The test used was the Agar Gel Immunodiffusion Test. A total of 2818 equids from 889 farms were tested. In the state, the prevalence of infected farms was 1.55% [0.92; 3.00] and the prevalence of seropositive animals was 0.55% [0.27; 1.00]. Introduction of equids showed an association with EIA (OR=5.5 [1.9; 15.9]). Paraná equine owners should be alerted to the need to observe health precautions regarding EIA when introducing animals to their herd. In 2018, the sensitivity of the Surveillance System for EIA in Paraná was only 1.36%, probably insufficient to change the endemic balance of the disease, therefore, needs to be re-evaluated involving in the process all public and private agents interested in the subject.

Molecular detection of equine infectious anemia viruses using conventional PCR and primer design for virus gag-gene region in the middle Iraqi provinces

Equine infectious anemia (EIA) is a viral infection that affects Equidae as a persistent infection. Infected horses usually develop a systemic disease with mild clinical signs such as irregular fever, weight loss, anemia, and weakness. The study was the first molecular record of the EIA viruses in horses in Iraq. In total, 72 blood samples (30 horses and 42 donkeys) were selected with history and signs of anemia. The study was conducted in central Iraq (Babylon, Karbala, and Al-Dawinih provinces) from 2015 to 2017. Then, primer design and molecular identification of the gag gene of the EIA virus were performed. The results showed that EIA virus infection rates in horses and donkeys in Iraq's middle regions were 16.66% and 0%, respectively. The DNA sequences of two positive EIA virus samples revealed that isolates have 271 nucleotides under accession numbers MN861108.1 and MN861109.1, respectively. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that Iraqi isolates were clustered in different clades and revealed 83.1– 100% identity with EIAV world isolates in the NCBI. This study was the first molecular record of EIA viruses in Iraq. The study indicated that the gag region was an essential target for EIAV detection. Keywords: PCR, Gag, Gene, EIA, Iraq

Development and evaluation of a real-time quantitative PCR for the detection of equine infectious anemia virus.

Equine infectious anemia (EIA) has a worldwide distribution and causes severe economic losses to the equine industry. The EIA virus (EIAV) genome sequences from different countries are highly diverse, which poses a great challenge for pathogen identification with PCR. Phylogenetic analysis showed that although gag is the most conserved structural gene, it still has great genome variability. Currently, most existing PCR methods are designed based on the gag gene sequence and therefore do not cover all the viral strains, especially Asian EIAV strains. In this study, we developed a tat-gag-based real-time quantitative PCR (TG-qPCR) for the detection of EIAV by targeting the fragment between the tat and gag genes, which was relatively conserved in all the known EIAV strains. The performance of the TG-qPCR was evaluated against that of the standard qPCR (recommended by WOAH) by testing viral RNA extracted from viral supernatants of EIAVDLV2-6 and EIAVUK3, proviral DNA from peripheral blood mononuclear cells of artificially immunized horses, and virus nucleic acid from EIAV positive serum samples. The TG-qPCR assay had high specificity, sensitivity, and reproducibility. The detection limit of the TG-qPCR assay was 1 copy/reaction for both viral RNA and proviral DNA based on the Poisson distribution. Compared to the qPCR, the TG-qPCR has better inclusivity and can detect not only Asian EIAV strains but also almost all the representative EIAV strains from other continents. The above results show that the TG-qPCR assay could serve as an effective tool for the early diagnosis of clinical EIA disease.IMPORTANCEEquine infectious anemia (EIA) has a worldwide distribution and causes significant losses to the equine industry worldwide. A reliable detection method is necessary to control the transmission of EIA virus (EIAV). Currently, most of the available real-time PCR assays, including the qPCR of recommended by WOAH, are developed according to the sequences of European or American EIAV strains; however, the primers and probe sequences have low homology with Asian EIAV strains. To the best of our knowledge, no qPCR method capable of the well detection of Asian EIAV strains, especially Chinese EIAV strains, has been published to date. The development of a sensitive, specific, and rapid qPCR assay for the detection of the EIAV strains is therefore of great importance.

The Antiviral Factor SERINC5 Impairs the Expression of Non-Self-DNA.

SERINC5 is a restriction factor that becomes incorporated into nascent retroviral particles, impairing their ability to infect target cells. In turn, retroviruses have evolved countermeasures against SERINC5. For instance, the primate lentiviruses (HIV and SIV) use Nef, Moloney Murine Leukemia Virus (MLV) uses GlycoGag, and Equine Infectious Anemia Virus (EIAV) uses S2 to remove SERINC5 from the plasma membrane, preventing its incorporation into progeny virions. Recent studies have shown that SERINC5 also restricts other viruses, such as Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) and Classical Swine Fever Virus (CSFV), although through a different mechanism, suggesting that SERINC5 can interfere with multiple stages of the virus life cycle. To investigate whether SERINC5 can also impact other steps of the replication cycle of HIV, the effects of SERINC5 on viral transcripts, proteins, and virus progeny size were studied. Here, we report that SERINC5 causes significant defects in HIV gene expression, which impacts virion production. While the underlying mechanism is still unknown, we found that the restriction occurs at the transcriptional level and similarly affects plasmid and non-integrated proviral DNA (ectopic or non-self-DNA). However, SERINC5 causes no defects in the expression of viral RNA, host genes, or proviral DNA that is integrated in the cellular genome. Hence, our findings reveal that SERINC5's actions in host defense extend beyond blocking virus entry.

Serological Examinations of Significant Viral Infections in Domestic Donkeys at the Special Nature Reserve "Zasavica", Serbia.

The paper presents the findings of specific antibodies in the blood sera of donkeys against the following viruses: equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV), African horse sickness virus (AHSV), equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1), equine influenza virus subtype H3N8 (EIV) and equine arteritis virus (EAV). The analyses were conducted during the year 2022. From a total of 199 donkeys bred in "Zasavica", blood was sampled from 53 animals (2 male donkeys and 51 female donkeys), aged 3 to 10 years. Specific antibodies against EIAV were not detected in any of the tested animals using the agar-gel immunodiffusion (AGID) assay. No specific antibodies against AHSV, tested by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), or antibodies against EAV, tested by the virus neutralization test (VNT) and ELISA were detected in any of these animals. A positive serological result for EHV-1 was determined by the VNT in all animals, with antibody titer values ranging from 1:2 to 1:128, while a very low antibody titer value for EIV (subtype H3N8) of 1:16 was determined in 18 donkeys using the hemagglutination inhibition test (HI test).

Nosological profile and classification of infectious diseases of farm animals in the territory of the Pepublic of Sakha (Yakutia)

The results of the classification of infectious diseases of farm animals spread on the territory of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) for the period 2001-2021 are presented. It was found that there were 42 nosological units of animal diseases involved in the epizootic process on the territory of Yakutia. Infections in cattle are caused by 18 types of pathogens, horses - 12, reindeer - 4, pigs - 10, birds - 11, small ruminants - 3, fur-bearing animals - 7, other types of animals - 9. According to the OIE classification, 10 nosoforms of diseases are common in Yakutia: rabies, brucellosis, viral hemorrhagic septicemia, equine infectious anemia, avian infectious bronchitis, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, paratuberculosis, pasteurellosis and tuberculosis. Diseases not on the OIE list, including Marek’s disease, swine dysentery, colibacillosis, parvoviral enteritis, salmonellosis, diamond-skin disease, blackleg were registered. A number of nosoforms common in Yakutia belong to particularly dangerous diseases for which restrictive measures (quarantine) may be imposed. These include actinomycosis, rabies, brucellosis, infectious equine anemia, avian infectious bronchitis, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, bovine leukosis, leptospirosis, paratuberculosis, diamond-skin disease, tuberculosis and canine distemper virus. A number of diseases (Marek’s disease, carnivorous infectious hepatitis, bovine leukosis, horse strangles, avian ornithosis, egg drop syndrome, diamond-skin disease, and blackleg) are peculiar to only one species of animals. Many infections are characterized by the persistence of the pathogen in different species of farm and small domestic animals, birds and wildlife, which determines the interspecies degree of epizootic danger of these infections. Infections of bacterial etiology (bacterioses) prevail in Yakutia with 21 nosoforms. Viral diseases (viroses) are represented by 15 nosoforms, mycoplasmosis and chlamydia - one each. The most numerous infections are those with the main alimentary, or fecal-oral, route (22 diseases). Ten infections, including infectious atrophic rhinitis, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, distemper, are classified as airborne or respiratory (major) pathogen transmission. Transmissive carry-over (by vectors) is characterized by actinomycosis and infectious equine anemia; through the outer covers (without the participation of vectors) - 5 diseases, including balanoposthitis and rabies. The majority of the infections are characterized by one or more additional mechanisms of transmission (rabies, Marek’s disease, bovine leukemia, diamond-skin disease, etc.) in addition to the main mechanism of transmission of the pathogen. According to the source of the causative agent for all diseases (ktenonoses) they are domestic animals, but for such infections as rabies, Marek’s disease, viral hemorrhagic septicemia, leptospirosis and others, along with domestic animals, wild animals are an additional source (ktenotherionoses). In terms of susceptibility, most infections (30) belong to zoonoses peculiar only to animals; the remaining 12 belong to the more dangerous zooanthroponoses common to animals and humans.