Epoxidized Palm Oil Research Articles

Characterization of Fluoroacrylate Palm Oil Polyurethane (FPOPU) with Different Synthesis Methods Using Fourier-Transform Infra-Red (FTIR)

In this study, fluoroacrylate palm oil polyurethane (FPOPU) was synthesized with different synthesis methods. FPOPU was synthesized stepwise starting with the synthesis of acrylated epoxidized palm oil (AEPO) by a reaction of acrylic acid (AA) and triethylamine (TEA) as the catalyst. Then, palm oil polyurethane (POPU) was formed by the reaction of AEPO with isophorone diisocyanate (IPDI) and hydroxyethyl acrylate (HEA) as an end cap agent. POPU was further added with 1,6 hexanediol diacrylate (HDDA), trimethyloltripropane triacrylate (TMPTA), and heptafluorodecyl methyl-metacrylate (HDFDMA) monomers to form FPOPU. FPOPU synthesis methods were studied by manipulating the sequence of chemicals added, temperature, and mixing time of POPU. The FPOPU mixture was finally cast onto a silicone mold with 1 mm thickness and cured under UV radiation at 120 seconds. Based on the analysis, pre-mixed IPDI with HEA at 60°C for 15 min followed by the addition of AEPO at 60°C and further mixed for 3 hours (Method 2) shows the complete formation of the urethane chain. It is proven by the existence of NH peak at 3500 cm-1 and the disappearance of NCO peak at the range of 2200-2500 cm-1 indicating the NCO functional group has completely reacted with OH group in AEPO. The addition of fluorination also can be proved by the existence of CF stretching at 1012 cm-1. This study provides information regarding comparison between the synthesis method of FPOPU.

Enhancing mechanical performance of biodegradable automotive composites with EPO and graphene

Recent strides in composite manufacturing technology have sparked a widespread embrace of natural fiber composites in engineering applications, exemplified by flax fiber. The crux of this development centers on the creation of an environmentally friendly composite, utilizing alkali-treated flax fiber reinforcement and poly lactic acid (PLA) as the polymer matrix through a hot compression technique. The investigation into water absorption unveils that alkaline treatment augments the hydrophobic nature and enhances the crystallinity of flax fibers, resulting in improved adhesion between the reinforcement and polymer matrix. The introduction of 5% wt of epoxidized palm oil (EPO) as plasticizers not only counters brittleness but also elevates thermal stability. Further enhancements are achieved through the addition of 0.5 wt% of graphene nanoparticles as nano-fillers, culminating in superior mechanical properties. This research places a focal point on a thorough mechanical characterization of these green composites, encompassing tensile, flexural, and impact properties, along with an assessment of inter-laminar shear strength. A detailed analysis of dimensional stability is conducted, while morphological scrutiny is performed using scanning electron microscopy. This study marks a significant leap towards sustainable engineering, presenting innovative natural fiber green composites that exhibit heightened mechanical and environmental performance.

Use of different epoxide ring openers and volumes of epoxidized palm oil to modify palm oil into biopolyol

Use of different epoxide ring openers and volumes of epoxidized palm oil to modify palm oil into biopolyol

Microencapsulated epoxidized palm oil: A self-healing coating solution

Coatings are susceptible to cracking due to chemical exposure and mechanical forces. To enhance their durability and self-healing properties, microcapsules are utilized. In this study, poly(urea formaldehyde) microcapsules containing epoxidized palm oil as the core material were synthesized and investigated for their self-healing properties in diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA) epoxy resin. The epoxidation reaction of palm oil was carried out by varying reaction times and the molar ratio of hydrogen peroxide to formic acid to achieve an effective oxygen carrier with a high oxirane oxygen content. The formation of epoxide groups was confirmed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and Fourier transform Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR). The core-shell structure of the microcapsules was characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). Pencil hardness and adhesion tests were conducted on the epoxy coatings containing different amounts of microcapsules to evaluate the impact of microcapsules on hardness and adhesion properties. The epoxy coatings with microcapsules demonstrated significant self-healing ability and provided effective anti-corrosive protection. Higher microcapsule contents resulted in improved self-healing performance. Furthermore, the addition of microcapsules at 5 to 15 wt % did not compromise the hardness and adhesion properties of the epoxy coating.

Catalytic epoxidation of palm oleic acid by heterogeneous catalysts: Optimization and kinetic model

AbstractEpoxidized vegetable oils can produce a natural‐based polymer product as chemical reaction intermediates, plasticisers, and stabilizers in polyvinyl chloride. This study aims to identify the effects of using different concentrations of hydrogen peroxide and the effect of different molar ratios of hydrogen peroxide on relative conversion to oxirane. Epoxidized palm oil was produced in situ using performic acid as epoxidation agents and titanium dioxide as a catalyst. The results indicated that a higher concentration of hydrogen peroxide at 50% concentration and the ratio of 2:1 of hydrogen peroxide to palm oil used in the in situ epoxidation of had provided a higher relative conversion to oxirane (50%) in reaction time (70 min). Fourier transformation infrared spectroscopy revealed the presence of an oxirane group at 1200 cm−1. Numerical kinetic modeling was developed with applied genetic algorithm optimization to find the process model that fit experimental data. Then, the kinetic rate, k parameters obtained k11 = 0.031 mol L−1 min−1, k12 = 3.159 mol L−1 min−1, k2 = 2.620 mol L−1 min−1 for epoxidation palm oil, and k3 = 1.19 × 10−5 mol L−1 min−1 in degradation process.

Novel soda lignin/PLA/EPO biocomposite: A promising and sustainable material for 3D printing filament

Polylactic acid (PLA) has been extensively used in 3D printing due to its low melting temperature and minimal warping. This study investigated the reinforcement of PLA filament with soda lignin from oil palm empty fruit bunches (OPEFB) in the presence of epoxidised palm oil (EPO) as 3D printable filament. The alkaline extraction method was carried out used sodium hydroxide (NaOH), followed by precipitation with mineral acids utilising one-factor-at-a-time (OFAT). The highest extraction yield was 30 % using 1 M NaOH and 20 % phosphoric acid. Fourier transforms infra-red (FTIR) confirmed the removal of lignin in the absence of 1740 cm⁻1 and 1513 cm⁻1 peaks. Scanning electron microscopy images revealed rough surface and less voids observed at the cross-section of filament. The addition of 1 phr lignin and 5 phr EPO (PLAE1) showed improvement in thermal and mechanical properties, with higher Tₒ around 5 °C and 10 % crystallinity. Brittleness is reduced by 5 % for PLAE1 compared to unfilled PLA due to increase of elongation at break. Rheology analysis revealed that PLA/lignin filament appeared to be more viscous, shown by lower complex viscosity of roughly 100 Pa compared to 800 Pa for PLA at 1 rad/s. PLAE1 exhibiting decreased in brittleness by 4 %, and high impact strength of 37 %. Dynamic mechanical analysis revealed that PLAE1 had lower rigidity than unfilled PLA with lower damping factor and storage modulus of 1.67 and 1.54 GPa. The findings revealed that the PLAE1 biocomposite has potential as alternative filament for sustainable 3D printing.

Single step synthesis of Dihydroxystearic Acid (DHSA) from Epoxidized Palm Oil

Single step synthesis of Dihydroxystearic Acid (DHSA) from Epoxidized Palm Oil

Bio-lubricant production based on epoxidized oleic acid derived dated palm oil using in situ peracid mechanism

Abstract In recent years, research on the epoxidation of fatty acids has attracted a great deal of attention due to the increased need for eco-friendly epoxides generated from vegetable oils. The purpose of this research is to produce bio-lubricant from optimized epoxidized oleic acid by alcoholysis with methanol, tert-butyl alcohol, and ethanolamine. Epoxidation is carried out using in situ performic acid formation under a constant temperature of 60 °C where formic acid acts as an oxygen carrier and hydrogen peroxide acts as an oxygen donor. The determination of the optimum process parameters uses one factor at a time (OFAT) method and is based on the optimized process parameters until the maximum relative conversion to oxirane of 65% is achieved. The bio-lubricants are confirmed using the Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) analysis and the results show that the hydroxyl group is present at 3400 cm−1 of wavenumber. A kinetic modeling is performed using the MATLAB optimization tool. After 100 iterations, the reaction rate constant based on optimized epoxidized dated palm oil production were obtained as follows: k 11 = 0.4251 mol⋅L−1⋅min−1, k 12 = 11.345 mol⋅L−1⋅min−1, and k 2 = 0.6761 mol⋅L−1⋅min−1.

Chitosan-based films with alternative eco-friendly plasticizers: Preparation, physicochemical properties and stability

Chitosan-based films modified with synthesized (propylene glycol monoacetate, propylene glycol esters of fatty acids, and epoxidized propylene glycol esters) and commercial eco-friendly plasticizers (epoxidized soybean oil and epoxidized palm oil) were prepared by a casting technique, with the aim to obtain environmentally friendly materials for packaging applications. To assess the applicability of alternative plasticizers, their properties were compared to the two most common plasticizers, i.e. glycerol and sorbitol. The chemical structure of newly synthesized plasticizers was verified by gas chromatography with mass detector, infrared spectroscopy and 1H NMR; and their acid, epoxy, iodine, and saponification values were determined. Plasticized chitosan-based films were characterized in terms of hydrophilic, barrier, thermal, mechanical properties, zeta potential and morphology, confirming their flexibility and homogeneity. The research confirmed that the alternative plasticizers introduced by us are more effective than commercially available ones, exhibiting lower hydrophilicity and superior mechanical properties compared to samples plasticized with traditional plasticizers. Moreover, these properties were found to be even better after ageing for 10 months.

Mechanical properties of unsaturated polyester/epoxidized palm oil/Kenaf fibre composite at different styrene content

Polyester resin (UPE) is petroleum-based polymer that most generally utilized as matrix system in fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) products due to its high properties per price ratio. Currently, researchers are interested in partial blends of UPE resin with vegetable oil reinforced with natural fibre to produce renewable and sustainable composite products. However, the mechanical properties of this new blending bio-composite are highly related to the curing and crosslinking process of the UPE resin; which contributed by the styrene concentration as the crosslinking agent. Thus, this research aims to investigate the effect of styrene contents on the mechanical and thermal properties of unsaturated polyester (UPE)/epoxidized palm oil (EPO)/kenaf composites. The kenaf fibres were initially treated with an alkaline solution, and the composites were prepared by the direct mixing method and fabricated by hand lay-up technique. In this research, the amount of EPO and styrene varied at 0, 10, 20, 30 wt% and 25, 35, and 45 %, respectively. The characterization of found that increasing styrene content in UPE/EPO/kenaf composites improved the crosslinking and chemical interactions in the composites. In addition, increasing styrene content also improved the tensile modulus, tensile strength, Izod impact strength and elongation at break of the UPE/EPO/kenaf composites.

Combination of temperature and time of oxirane rings opening reaction for producing palm oil polyol as raw material of flexible polyurethane foam

Flexible polyurethane foams can be synthesized using polyols having a hydroxyl value of less than 100 mg KOH/g. The value of the hydroxyl value is affected by the temperature and time of the oxirane rings opening reaction. The purpose of this study was to examine the combination of temperature and time of the best oxirane rings opening reaction to produce polyols with a hydroxyl value of less than 100 mg KOH/g. Epoxidized palm oil was treated with temperature (50°C, 60°C, 70°C, and 80°C) and time (1 hour, 2 hours, 3 hours, and 4 hours). Parameters observed were hydroxyl value, hydroxyl content, density, viscosity, acid number, and color. The best treatment continued with the FTIR test. The oxirane rings opening reaction using a temperature of 50°C for 1 hour gave a hydroxyl value of 75.87 mg KOH/g.

Comparative study on the properties of starch-based bioplastics incorporated with palm oil and epoxidized palm oil

This study aimed to modify the starch-based bioplastics with acceptable mechanical and water resistance properties using palm oil (PO) and epoxidized palm oil (EPO). The structural, thermal, mechanical and water resistance properties of the resulted bio-composites were evaluated. EPO had better compatibility within the starch matrix than PO. The bioplastics with PO and EPO exhibited different melting behaviors. Low concentrations of oils (<3 wt%) improved the tensile strength and elongation at break of the bioplastics remarkably, while higher concentrations of oils caused the decrease of tensile properties due to phase separation. Comparatively, EPO was more efficient at enhancing tensile properties than PO due to the presence of epoxy groups. Both oils reduced the water uptake and solubility of the bio-composites slightly. In conclusion, the addition of EPO was a more attractive way to enhance the properties of starch-based bioplastics.

Potential of epoxidized palm oil as a green alternative to rubber processing oils

Sustainability is a growing concern in the rubber industry particularly due to the vast amount of environmental issues associated with the manufacturing process. The dependencies of hydrocarbons as Rubber Processing Oils (RPOs) throughout the compounding process is an area that is being heavily researched in search for greener alternatives. This study aims to determine the viability of a naturally available vegetable oil, Epoxidized Palm Oil (EPO), as a substitute to the current petroleum-based rubber processing oils. Therefore, the processability, cure characteristics as well as mechanical properties of the rubber compounds with EPO were benchmarked with those of the standard rubber compounds prepared with selected petroleum oils; Paraffin Oil, Aromatic Oil and Naphthenic Oil. The finding from this report suggests that EPO is a viable substitute to petroleum-derived RPOs as it performs within the acceptable range as the compounds with the other RPOs.

Interactions and performance analysis of epoxidized palm oil/unsaturated polyester resin: Mechanical, thermal, and thermo-mechanical properties

In this work, an alternative of bio-thermoset resin for composite applications was synthesized using unsaturated polyester resin (UPE) and epoxidized palm oil (EPO). The main purpose of this study is to reduce the dependency on petroleum and improve the toughness properties of UPE by partially introduced renewable source triglyceride, EPO in the UPE chain. The UPE resin blends with 10, 20, and 30 wt% EPO oil were synthesized by using benzoyl peroxide as an initiator. The samples were cured in an oven at 100°C and 160°C for 4 h. The interaction of the blend was studied by the FTIR test supported by the SEM test. The effects of EPO loadings in UPE on the mechanical, thermal, and thermo-mechanical properties were also being studied. The addition of EPO physically interacted in the system and acted as a lubricant. The higher the addition of EPO in UPE has increased the elongation at break and impact strength of the UPE resin, which indicated an increase in mobility and toughness of the UPE chain. The developed UPE/EPO blends resin also exhibited higher thermal stability than the neat UPE, thereby showing potential to be used in a wide range of composite applications.

Synthesis and characterization of hydrophobic properties of silicon dioxide in palm oil based bio-coating

This research aims to synthesize a biobased polyurethane coating from epoxidized palm oil (EPO) and determine the effect of different silicon dioxide (SiO2) loadings on the hydrophobicity performance of the coating. In this work, EPO was firstly undergoing an acrylation reaction and followed by the addition of isophorone diisocyanate (IPDI) to form Polyurethane (PU). Improvement was made by adding SiO2 at different loadings into the palm oil-based PU to provide hydrophobic properties to the coating materials. The sample was characterized using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), water sliding angle test, and water absorption test. Based on the FTIR results, PU was successfully synthesized from EPO with SiO2 addition. The results also proved that the addition of SiO2 successfully improved the hydrophobicity of the coating. The higher the SiO2 content in palm oil PU, the shorter the time taken for the water to slide down the 25° angle coated glass and lower the water absorption percentage of the coating material. Based on the analysis, 3 phr SiO2 content showed the highest hydrophobicity performance, which could be applied in further research.

Poly(Lactic) Acid Reinforced with Alkaline Lignin Biocomposites Prepared by Thermal Extrusion for Sustainable 3D Printing Process

The focus of this work is the mechanical characterization of biomaterials produced by 3D printing based on fused filament fabrication (FFF) process that has been mainly used for prototype rather than functional components due to the limited mechanical properties of pure thermoplastics parts. Addition of reinforcements from natural fiber has been adopted to improve the mechanical properties of the 3D printed parts. In this study, alkaline lignin powder that has been extracted from oil palm empty fruit bunches (OPEFB) via alkaline extraction process were used as filler in the production of biocomposites with poly(lactic) acid (PLA). Poly(lactic) acid filaments filled with 1% of alkaline lignin powder and has been compared with the presence of 5% of epoxidized palm oil (EPO) by means of thermal extrusion and further proceed with 3D printing. The samples were mechanically characterized using tensile tests and the fractography were observed. Tensile test that has been done on the filaments reveal that the filament with addition of lignin and EPO shows improved mechanical properties with higher tensile strength as well as lower stiffness. The 3D printed samples of the filament compositions also exhibit similar trend where the said filament has the best mechanical properties when the EPO is incorporated in the filament.

Self-Healable Bio-based Epoxy Resin from Epoxidized Palm Oil

Self-Healable Bio-based Epoxy Resin from Epoxidized Palm Oil

Water Absorption Behaviour of Epoxy/Acrylated Epoxidized Palm Oil (AEPO) Reinforced Hybrid Kenaf/Glass Fiber Montmorillonite (HMT) Composites

The use of fiber-reinforced vegetable oil - polymer composites has increased in various technical fields. However, the long-term operating performance of these materials is still not well understood, limiting the development of these composites. In this study, the water absorption performance of hybrid composites, which consist of kenaf fiber and glass fiber as reinforcement, epoxy resin and acrylated epoxidized palm oil (AEPO) as a matrix, and montmorillonite (MMT) nano clays as a filler was evaluated with the function of different fibers layering order. The hand lay-up method is used to produce the composites with the variable number of kenaf fibers and glass fibers layer sequences. The water absorption kinetics of epoxy/AEPO reinforced hybrid kenaf/glass fiber-filled MMT composites are described in this paper. It has been observed that the water absorption rate of the composites depends on the fiber layering sequences. The alternative sequence of Glass-Kenaf-Kenaf-Glass and Kenaf-Glass-Kenaf-Glass composites layers exhibited the lowest moisture absorption rates of 7.61% and 7.63%, respectively.

SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF BIOBASED EPOXIDIZED EDIBLE OILS

Nowadays, major pollutions present in the environment are produced by non-degradable substances. Eventually, the use of non-degradable products will increase carbon footprint in the atmosphere. In this study, modifications of five vegetable oils into biobased epoxides are reported. The oils used in this study were commercial palm oil, rice bran oil, canola oil, soybean oil and sunflower oil. The vegetable oils were refluxed using formic acid and hydrogen peroxide at temperature ranges of 45 to 50˚C and 60 to 65˚C for seven hours in order to change the chemical structure of carbon-carbon double bonds into oxirane rings. The mixture was then processed by liquid-liquid extraction to separate epoxide oil from liquid that was present during the reflux process. The obtained oils were then analyzed using ATR-FTIR and the presence of oxirane rings were observed at the wavelength ν=1080.79 cm-1 and 836.10 cm-1 for epoxidized palm oil, ν =1107.14 cm-1 and 841.11 cm-1 for epoxidized rice bran oil, ν =1050.13 cm-1 and 850.35 cm-1 for epoxidized canola oil, ν =1083.99 cm-1 and 825.03 cm-1 for epoxidized soybean oil and ν =1095.57 cm-1 and 820.16 cm-1 for epoxidized sunflower oil, respectively. Additionally, an absorption band at ν=1462 cm-1 was observed in all oil samples, indicating the presence of C-C oxirane. In future, these epoxidized oils can serve as a great potential as new starting materials for the synthesis of lipid biopolymers.

Development of bio-based epoxy resin from palm oil

In this study, the epoxidized palm oil was synthesized with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as an oxygen donor and formic acid as an oxygen carrier. The effect of H2O2 concentration on the chemical structure and thermal properties of epoxidized palm oil was investigated. The FT-IR results showed the disappearance of unsaturated double bonds together with the formation of oxirane groups. The excess concentration of H2O2 caused an undesirable reaction that the oxirane ring was diminished. DSC results showed that the Tm and Tc of epoxidized palm oil were shifted toward higher values. The epoxidation of palm oil can be utilized as a reactant for bio-based epoxy resins, which improve local resource value-added palm oil in Thailand.