Environmental Site Assessment Research Articles

Rapid Determination of the Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon Content of Soils by Handheld Fourier Transform Near-Infrared Spectroscopy.

For successful soil remediation and hydrocarbon exploration operations, determining the total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) content of soils is an indispensable process step. This paper reports on the performance of a handheld Fourier transform near-infrared (FT-NIR) spectrometer for rapid and quantitative determination of TPH content of soils from two different sites by diffuse reflection measurements. For rapid decisions for exploration work or environmental site assessment projects, a quick─preferably on-site─determination of TPH content is valuable. Diffuse reflection NIR spectra were recorded from soil samples of two different sites with TPH reference values ranging from 350 to 30,000 ppm, as determined by capillary gas chromatography and flame ionization detection with hydrocarbon fingerprinting C1-C44. However, this paper not only addresses the development of site-specific partial-least squares (PLS) calibrations but also demonstrates the locally-weighted PLS (LW-PLS) technique, which can be used to develop global, site-independent PLS calibrations without significant penalty in calibration performance. As a first step, the diffuse reflection spectra were used to develop conservative, site-specific PLS calibration models with root-mean-square calibration/cross-validation errors (RMSEC/RMSECV) of 1043/1106 and 741/785 ppm TPH, respectively, and the average absolute prediction errors for samples not contained in the calibration set were 451 and 293 ppm for the two sites, respectively. In a further step, significant degradation of the RMSE values of a conservative PLS model based on the NIR spectra of both sites was then compared to the application of the LW-PLS method, with only a slight loss of the prediction accuracy relative to the site-independent models. This study confirms the ability of next-generation portable FT-NIR spectrometers to predict low TPH levels in various soil types through both─soil-specific and site-independent─calibrations, giving these spectrometers the potential to become rapid screening tools in the field.

Estimating the heterogeneity invariant using size-density classes – the case of contaminated soil and complex materials

For the important material class of aggregate mixtures comprised by both analyte-enriched and analyte-coated particles, Gy’s classical s2(FSE) formula has often been reported to yield estimates of the fundamental sampling variance greater than the empirically estimated sampling variance. Which, however, is physically impossible according to the tenets of the Theory of Sampling (TOS), both physically and logically, since the fundamental sampling variance is, by definition, the minimum sampling variance remaining after all other sources of sampling errors have been eliminated. This situation has for many decades hindered rational use of the Theory of Sampling for this kind of complex systems. We here focus on contaminated soil as a typical illustrative example of great interest, as well as more generally in the field of environmental site assessment. This uncomfortable situation is exacerbated by the fact that sampling in these fields is still, after 70+ years of TOS, largely conducted by grab sampling, which assuredly lead to significant uncertainty and bias. However, there is a solution to this at first sight“intractable” problem to be found, specifically within TOS. In some of his earlier publications, Gy developed a variant the s2(FSE) formula based on consideration of both size- and density classes, but quickly dismissed this approach as being inapplicable to « the metal, mining, and processing industries […] due to the unusual density contrast between the components » typical of matrices sampled in these fields. This size-density class variant was consequently then left out of sampling awareness and literature for a long time. We revisit herein development of the heterogeneity invariant on this basis and show this to represent a general option which can be adapted to distinct and specific matrices andanalytes beyond the original restricted realm. As an example, a size-density class variant is applied to data from studies on sampling complex contaminated soils for which the use of Gy’s classical formula yielded such “impossible” estimates of s2(FSE) larger than empirical sampling variances by several orders of magnitude. This size-density class s2(FSE) variant now provides estimates for all cases and examples, which are systematically smaller than the empirical sampling variances, and thus in full accordance with the Theory of Sampling. This generalised approach is also applied with similar success to controlled materials, which were made to represent analyte-enriched and/or analyte-coated matrices, as used in recent studies on sampling bias and representativeness. The results in our studies all show that it is not Gy’s classical formula which was at fault when applied outside the traditional domains, e.g., to contaminated soils, it is that the critical assumptions behind the formula were broken, unwittingly, or worse, with blunt carelessness. In analyte-coated materials, or for mixed matrices, the original full size-density class-based formula now provides the proper starting point for developing TOS-compliant matrix-specific approaches on a much broader scale. With this new scope, analysts no longer must forego the revolutionary advantage of Gy’s classical formula, i.e., the capacity to estimate the fundamental sampling variancea priori. Now, only at the cost of a pilot sampling stage, the augmented size-density class formula provides the analyst with the capacity to adapt sampling protocols also to the challenging task of taking on practically all natural systems sesu lato, however complex.

A Student Led Investigation of the Landscape Dynamics of Campus Recycling

Two senior undergraduate students within the environmental science division at Stephen F. Austin State University (SFASU) quantitatively diagnosed the environmental, ecological, and socioeconomic dynamics involved in plastic recycling. This study incorporated actively collecting recycled plastic bottles on campus to produce an enumerated analysis of recycling on campus; and to gain an understanding of the socioeconomics of recycling via an anonymous survey used to determine the recycling knowledgebase of natural resource students at SFASU. Undergraduate students, via their incorporation into a campus wide environmental site assessment of recycling plastic bottles, were able to apply their classroom knowledge to a real-world environmental concern thus making them more well-rounded and society-ready environmental scientists.

Incremental sampling methodology for petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated soils: volume estimates and remediation strategies

ABSTRACTCurrent environmental assessments for petroleum hydrocarbon (PHC) contaminated sites are dependent on discrete soil sampling to estimate the degree and extent of contamination, leading to unreliable and non-reproducible results. Incremental sampling methodology (ISM) involves collecting and combining samples within a targeted area and holds promise for being a cost-effective, representative, and reproducible sampling strategy for contaminated site characterization. We hypothesized that traditional Phase II Environmental Site Assessments (ESA) discrete and ISM sampling protocols were not mutually exclusive, and the two approaches can be used to formulate a responsible land management strategy. Results gathered through ISM were compared to those from Phase II ESA for two PHC contaminated sites in Canada. Both methods indicated the sites were impacted with PHC beyond Saskatchewan Tier I guidance, however, the delineation of the PHC plume differed by as much as 75% for the heavier hydrocarbons. The Phase II ESA methods had higher incidences of false positive results and an overestimation of contamination at depth. A laboratory experiment confirmed that ISM does not “dilute” the samples as to cause underestimation, whereby the hydrocarbon concentrations for a single combined sample was equivalent to the mean of 30 discrete samples. Based on our results, sites should undergo risk assessment based on the estimates of the Phase II ESA results using vapor phase logs to estimate contaminant extent. If exposure pathways cannot be eliminated through the risk assessment process, remediation planning based on the ISM results is justified given the demonstrated cost-effectiveness, representativeness, and reproducibility.

Subsurface heterogeneity in the geological and hydraulic properties of the hummocky Paris Moraine, Guelph, Ontario

The advance and retreat of ice lobe margins of the Laurentide Ice Sheet formed moraines that are a prevalent feature throughout southwestern Ontario. In contrast to the well-studied stratified moraine complexes, recessional and end moraines have largely been ignored in the context of hydrogeological studies. Recent urban growth has led to development pressures on these moraines and a need to better understand their hydrogeology. This study presents data sets from the Paris Moraine near Guelph, Ontario, to examine its geomorphology, internal composition, and the corresponding hydraulic properties of these ice-marginal features. The moraine’s geomorphic elements were mapped using high-resolution Global Positioning System transects, aerial photograph analysis, and ground truthing. Nine continuous sediment cores were recovered to determine the nature and distribution of subsurface sedimentary units and their relation to the regional stratigraphic framework. Cores were described in detail using standard sedimentological techniques, and significant sediment heterogeneity was observed in cross sections. Grain-size analyses of over 150 samples provide site-specific estimates of saturated hydraulic conductivity. In addition, saturated hydraulic conductivity was measured on 104 samples using the falling head permeameter method. This study found that different scales of sediment heterogeneity occur across the moraine and the associated till plain and outwash. In contrast, the hydraulic conductivity varies much less. It is expected that certain sedimentary units at specific depths will impact groundwater flow at the centimetre to hundreds of metres scale, which is significant in environmental site assessments or for understanding contaminant hydrogeological problems.

Assessment of hydrocarbons subsoil and groundwater pollution in a refinery occupied property at the old industrial zone of Athens - Pireaus, Greece

Industrial activities that took place in the old industrial zone of Athens-Piraeus widespread pollution in natural systems. This specific environmental site assessment presents subsoil and groundwater pollution data by petroleum hydrocarbons in a property occupied by a small scale refinery the last 50 years. Additionally the vertical distribution and horizontal variability of pollution is analysed as a result of several point sources existence such as underground storage tanL·. Environmental survey site works conducted by boreholes performance and installation of stand-pipe type piezometers for groundwater monitoring. Totally 32 soil core samples were analyzed for total petroleum hydrocarbons and additionally 4 soil core sub-samples where volatile organic compounds maximum values were recorded, analyzed for aromatic hydrocarbons. Petroleum hydrocarbons values in subsoil and groundwater range from 310 to 8130 mgKg1 and 0.6 to 2550 mg/l respectively. This paper provides hydrocarbons pollution data of the site and demonstrates the need for an environmental site assessment study before any investment and development action takes place in brownfield's areas

Risks Management for Liquid Waste Disposal Area in the Khartoum Refinery-Sudan

This study focused on evaluating the procedures of risk management associated with disposal of oil wastewater at Gaili area, Khartoum north, Sudan. Approaches used in this study. Research tools conducted were Interviews, sampling and analysis report interpretation, aerial photographs analysis & topographic modeling analysis for the Gaili area. The study of risk management is conducted for oily wastewater disposal at Gaili area and analyzed current activities of the Khartoum refinery, petrochemical plant, Garri power plant, fuel terminals and the gathered data. The Study found that the selection of the site of the wastewater area was improper, the construction specification of the oily waste water area was not following the international standards and the final disposal of the generated sludge is not following the international environmental conventions. The study found that the wastewater disposal area might have huge probability of impacting the surrounding environment, and severe impacts will be on the groundwater, soil, surrounding water courses and the quality of the air in Gaili area will be affected by oily wastewater disposal. The study recommended establishing an environmental monitoring program for the wastewater activities, and to conduct an environmental site assessment of the area and adopt the remediation plan developed according to the developed data, to construct a new sedimentation lagoon according to international standard and to provide a bioremediation unit to treat the generated sludge.

Quantitative risk assessment of tobacco products: A potentially useful component of substantial equivalence evaluations

Quantitative risk assessment (QRA), a scientific, evidence-based analytical process that combines chemical and biological data to quantify the probability and potential impact of some defined risk, is used by regulatory agencies for decision-making. Thus, in tobacco product regulation, specifically in substantial equivalence (SE) evaluations, QRA can provide a useful, practical, and efficient approach to address questions that might arise regarding human health risk and potential influence on public health. In SE reporting, when differences in product characteristics may necessitate the determination of whether a new product raises different questions of public health, the results from QRA are a valuable metric. An approach for QRA in this context is discussed, which is modeled after the methodology for assessment of constituent mixtures by the US Environmental Protection Agency for environmental Superfund site assessment. Given the intent in both cases is an assessment of the public health impact resulting from the totality of exposure to a mixture of constituents, the application is appropriate. Although some uncertainties in the information incorporated may exist, relying on the most appropriate of the available data increases the confidence and decreases the uncertainty in the risk characterization using this data-driven methodology.

Assessment of ambient background concentrations of elements in soil using combined survey and open-source data.

Understanding ambient background concentrations in soil, at a local scale, is an essential part of environmental risk assessment. Where high resolution geochemical soil surveys have not been undertaken, soil data from alternative sources, such as environmental site assessment reports, can be used to support an understanding of ambient background conditions. Concentrations of metals/metalloids (As, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn) were extracted from open-source environmental site assessment reports, for soils derived from the Newer Volcanics basalt, of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. A manual screening method was applied to remove samples that were indicated to be contaminated by point sources and hence not representative of ambient background conditions. The manual screening approach was validated by comparison to data from a targeted background soil survey. Statistical methods for exclusion of contaminated samples from background soil datasets were compared to the manual screening method. The statistical methods tested included the Median plus Two Median Absolute Deviations, the upper whisker of a normal and log transformed Tukey boxplot, the point of inflection on a cumulative frequency plot and the 95th percentile. We have demonstrated that where anomalous sample results cannot be screened using site information, the Median plus Two Median Absolute Deviations is a conservative method for derivation of ambient background upper concentration limits (i.e. expected maximums). The upper whisker of a boxplot and the point of inflection on a cumulative frequency plot, were also considered adequate methods for deriving ambient background upper concentration limits, where the percentage of contaminated samples is <25%. Median ambient background concentrations of metals/metalloids in the Newer Volcanic soils of Melbourne were comparable to ambient background concentrations in Europe and the United States, except for Ni, which was naturally enriched in the basalt-derived soils of Melbourne.

Soil sampling strategies for site assessments in petroleum-contaminated areas.

Environmental site assessments are frequently executed for monitoring and remediation performance evaluation purposes, especially in total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH)-contaminated areas, such as gas stations. As a key issue, reproducibility of the assessment results must be ensured, especially if attempts are made to compare results between different institutions. Although it is widely known that uncertainties associated with soil sampling are much higher than those with chemical analyses, field guides or protocols to deal with these uncertainties are not stipulated in detail in the relevant regulations, causing serious errors and distortion of the reliability of environmental site assessments. In this research, uncertainties associated with soil sampling and sample reduction for chemical analysis were quantified using laboratory-scale experiments and the theory of sampling. The research results showed that the TPH mass assessed by sampling tends to be overestimated and sampling errors are high, especially for the low range of TPH concentrations. Homogenization of soil was found to be an efficient method to suppress uncertainty, but high-resolution sampling could be an essential way to minimize this.

Surveying employment listings to inform curricula of environmental science degree programs

Environmental Science has emerged as a common bachelor’s of science (B.S.) degree at colleges and universities throughout the USA, with growing enrollment and more than 1100 degrees offered. Many B.S. degrees in Environmental Science emphasize broad, cross-disciplinary training, but may lack in discipline-specific skills that promote job placement. The objective of this study is to identify characteristics in the job market that will guide curricula decisions and improve career preparedness for Environmental Science students. A survey was conducted of entry level employment listings for students with a B.S. degree in Environmental Science. Listings were obtained from seven unique websites chosen to represent diversity in employer types and were evaluated to characterize job type, title, duties, and qualifications. The survey evaluated 124 job listings out of more than 1000 search returns identified from local, state, and federal governments, the private sector, and non-governmental organizations. In 94 % of the jobs surveyed, one or more different degrees met the educational requirement, showing that environmental science students apply for the same positions as students from a number of other disciplines, including biology, environmental engineering, geology, agricultural sciences, and chemistry. This emphasizes a need for environmental science students to differentiate themselves from students with other science degrees with skills relevant to job duties. Jobs specific to environmental science were more common at state and local government levels than in the private sector or federal government. Technical job duties commonly included soil science, fisheries/wildlife management, research/lab work, and ecological research, all of which are commonly part of environmental science curriculum. Writing regulatory documents, project management, and leadership were identified as important job duties that could be emphasized in environmental science curriculum for better career preparation. More than half of the listings dealt directly with environmental permitting, compliance, or enforcement and emphasize technical writing of regulatory documents. Environmental site assessment was mentioned in many listings as both a duty and a qualification for the job. Supervisory and project management duties were part of almost half of the job listings. These results suggest areas where universities can develop environmental science curriculum to help students gain experience and improve job success.

Peculiar Features of Influence of the Modern Ecological State of the City of Chelyabinsk on Economic and Architectural Indexes of the Territory

At the present moment, a special attention has been paid to the optimal organization of the urban environment to meet modern environmental requirements. The economic development of urban systems depends largely on a literate account of both social and environmental factors. The analysis of indicators of the current state of the city of Chelyabinsk is given and which reveals a trend of further environmental problem aggravation. Based on statistical and cartographic data, an ecological map is built and a brief territorial review is given. The resulting analysis with area maps with varying degrees of the environmental stress were the basis for assessing the economic and urban development indicator territory, the correlation and regression analysis of the impact of the integrated environmental site assessment were carried out on the value of the real estate and the actual loss of customers due to environmental violations in the districts of Chelyabinsk was determined.

Implantação de ferrovias de alta velocidade: contribuição metodológica para o gerenciamento ambiental de obras lineares em áreas contaminadas e potencialmente contaminadas

O objetivo deste trabalho é propor um método de gerenciamento ambiental de obras lineares, tal como ferrovias de alta velocidade, nos trechos em que o traçado intercepta áreas contaminadas (AC), potencialmente contaminadas (AP) ou suspeitas de contaminação (AS). O estudo de caso utilizou o método proposto durante avaliação ambiental preliminar para a futura implantação do trem de alta velocidade entre Rio de Janeiro e Campinas (TAV). O método consiste na execução das seguintes etapas de trabalho: (a) identificação e caracterização de AP, AC e AS ao longo do traçado; (b) classificação dos trechos de obra; (c) elaboração de modelos conceituais de contaminação; (d) identificação de cenários e respectivas implicações ambientais sobre as obras e (e) proposição de ações ambientais. As ações de gerenciamento ambiental propostas para a fase de obras tiveram como objetivos minimizar impactos ambientais e possibilitar a implementação da obra com segurança para os trabalhadores no que diz respeito ao tema "áreas contaminadas". Adicionalmente, a estratégia proposta deverá contribuir para evitar eventuais atrasos na emissão de licenças ambientais e aumento nos custos do empreendimento

GIS-based multi-criteria evaluation to identify potential sites for soil and water conservation techniques in the Ronquillo watershed, northern Peru

This study presents a method to identify and rank potential sites for soil and water conservation techniques. The method takes into account environmental site assessment criteria and a decision-making method known as the Analytic Hierarchy Process. Spatial data is processed by applying a geographic information system and potential sites are ranked by a multi-criteria evaluation based on meteorologic, hydrologic, topographic, agronomic and pedologic criteria. The method is applied to identify potential sites for terraces and bund systems in the Ronquillo watershed, located in the northern Andes of Peru. The analysis indicates that 44% of the catchment area of the Ronquillo River is highly suited for the implementation of terraces, and 24% of the catchment area is highly suited for the implementation of bund systems. The preliminary identification of potential sites for soil and water conservation techniques may be a useful tool in the execution of resource conservation programs.

The Revised ASTM Environmental Site Assessment Standard

On December 30, 2013, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) gave final approval to a Rule which allows for the use of the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Practice for Environmental Site Assessments: Phase I Environmental Site Assessment Process (Standard E1527-13 or Standard) to satisfy the requirements for conducting All Appropriate Inquiries under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA). According to the EPA, 'All Appropriate Inquiries,' or AAI, is the process of evaluating a property's environmental conditions and assessing the likelihood of any contamination. Following the protocols in the revised Standard will satisfy the AAI requirement, which is crucial in establishing certain defenses to CERCLA liability associated with contaminated properties. Because ASTM Standard E1527-13 establishes a new baseline for completion of a Phase I Environmental Site Assessment, which is used to determine if any Recognized Environmental Condition exists on a property, it should become the focal point of the environmental due diligence process. Going forward, those seeking to acquire commercial real estate and those whose work includes corporate transactions that involve real estate would be wise to utilize the revised Standard when evaluating the environmental exposures associated with the subject property.

Environmental Site Assessment Standards Revised by the American Society for Testing and Methods (ASTM) International

Efforts to identify environmental conditions, limit liability in commercial property transfers, continue to evolve

Editor's Perspective—Using Research Tools as a Looking Glass Into Past Environmental Practices

Historic research in the environmental industry is primarily driven by the requirements prescribed by the ASTM Standard Practice for Environmental Site Assessments: Phase I Environmental Site Assessment Process (E 1527-05). This ASTM standard sets minimum requirements for historic research that include researching specified databases for the subject property and surrounding area, interviewing current and, to the extent available, former facility personnel, and making telephone calls to regulatory agencies. The ASTM standard also requires researching historic fire insurance maps, aerial photographs, and topographic maps. The most common method of complying with the historic records research is to obtain an environmental database report, which can be purchased from several different companies. I recently have been involved in several projects where following the minimum requirements of the ASTM standard did not identify key environmental issues. However, I was able to delve more deeply into the site history using additional research tools, which revealed past environmental practices that resulted in important remediation-related issues. In order to accurately perform environmental due diligence or scope a site investigation, conducting thorough historic research is becoming increasingly necessary. The advent of environmental regulations has improved environmental practices. Consequently, historic operations are likely to be the cause of most site contamination. For example, it is now unusual to see drums at a facility in the United States that are not stored under a roof and within secondary containment, whereas I recall near the beginning of my career in the mid-1980s often seeing open drums containing liquids stored outdoors in unprotected locations. Presumably, this was even more likely before the enactment of the US environmental liability statute, the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), in 1980. In my personal experience, many manufacturing facilities in the United States have either reverted from industrial uses, have employees with little historic knowledge, and/or are operating under modern environmental management systems. Therefore, environmental professionals should consider historic research tools to identify potential environmental impairment. Some of the research tools that have provided invaluable information in my recent projects are the following:

Electromagnetic induction in subsurface metal targets: Cluster analysis using local point-pattern spatial statistics

The detection and localization of statistically significant spatial clustering of buried metal artifacts for applications, including archaeological, environmental site assessment, and civil infrastructure mapping, can be performed reliably, inexpensively, and noninvasively using transient electromagnetic (EM) geophysics. The local [Formula: see text] statistic based on a weighted spatial autocorrelation were used to detect and localize statistically significant clustering of buried metal objects from gridded electromagnetic responses acquired at a seeded control site and at an active historical archaeological site in Paint Rock, Texas. This statistic compares the local EM millivolt response values about point [Formula: see text] radially to the global mean and variance to calculate the [Formula: see text] statistic as a standard variate at various length scales, which can therefore be assessed for significance. Because the local [Formula: see text] statistic compares local to global averages, it spatially compacts the amplitude response signal of the EM data. The resulting spatial cluster maps conformed well to the known distribution of metal targets buried at the control site, and enabled a successful excavation strategy with a significant reduction in false positives encountered at the archaeological site, when compared with more traditional methods.

Analysis of procedures for sampling contaminated soil using Gy's Sampling Theory and Practice

Soil sampling is a critical step in environmental site assessment studies. The representativeness of soil samples has a direct influence on financial, liability, environmental and public health issues associated with the outcome of remediation activities. Representativeness must be quantified for assessing and designing soil sampling procedures. Gy's Sampling Theory and Practice (STP) was used to analyze the reproducibility of two soil sampling procedures, namely a procedure based on grab sampling (GSP) and an alternative procedure (ASP) developed from STP principles. Sampling reproducibility, a component of sampling representativeness, was determined by theoretical calculations and experimental measurement of relative variances in trace metals concentrations at each stage of both sampling procedures. The ASP significantly increased the reproducibility of soil sampling compared to the GSP. Larger relative variances occurred during field sampling for the ASP and during laboratory sampling for the GSP. They were due to subsample mass reduction without control over particle size. Relative theoretical and experimental variances were in agreement. However, large discrepancies were observed for all sampling stages of both procedures between absolute theoretical and experimental relative variances. In the case of Pb, theoretical calculations were closer to experimental measurements when using a calculated value of the liberation factor (l) based on mineralogical data rather than l=1. It was shown that the b-exponent had a large influence on theoretical variances. Increasing the estimate of b from 0.5 to 1 largely improved the agreement between theory and experiment. Finally, 99% of experimental relative variance was explained by sampling errors compared to analytical errors.

A new method for environmental site assessment of urban solid waste landfills

Regarding various types of pollutant, waste management requires high attention. Environmental site selection study, prior to landfill operation, and subsequently, monitoring and maintaining of the location, are of foremost points in landfill site selection process. By means of these studies, it is possible to control the undesirable impacts caused by landfills. Study ahead aims at examination of effectiveness of a new method called Monavari 95-2 in landfill site assessment. For this purpose, two landfills Rasht and Andisheh, which are, respectively, located on humid and arid areas, were selected as case studies. Then, the results obtained from both sites were compared with each other to find out the weaknesses and strengths of each site. Compared with others similar methods, much more criteria (53 parameters) can be considered within this method, so the results will be more calculable. According to this method, Rasht landfill (site H) is classified as unacceptable landfill site i.e. there is an urgent need for a new suitable site for landfill, while Andishe Landfill (site D) is ranked as acceptable landfill site but needs environmental management program to handle the existing weaknesses.