Environmental Modification Techniques Research Articles

Problematic issues of qualification of cases of destruction or damage to forests and other objects of flora committed by the russian military in Ukraine

The article examines the peculiarities of qualifying cases of destruction or damage to forests and other flora committed by the russian military in Ukraine as war crimes, taking into account the norms of national and international law. Based on the analysis of the provisions of the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques, adopted by the UN General Assembly on 10 December 1976, and the Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions for the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I) of 8 June 1977, it was concluded that such facts are subject to qualification under Art. 438 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine (hereinafter – the CC) only if it is proved that they were committed in the context of and in connection with hostilities, and caused widespread, long-term and serious damage to the environment. It is stated that these features are evaluative, and therefore there is a need to initiate at the international level the development and regulatory consolidation of clear criteria for minimal damage to the environment, which will give grounds to qualify the infliction of such damage as a war crime under international humanitarian law. It is proved that if there is no connection with the conduct of hostilities, then mass destruction of flora is subject to qualification as ecocide under Article 441 of the Criminal Code, and if there is no mass destruction of such objects, then these acts may be qualified under Article 245 or Article 246 of the Criminal Code, but also only in cases where there is no connection with the conduct of hostilities. And if an individual or a group of russian military destroy or damage a plant life object, but this does not cause widespread, long-term and serious damage, but there is a contextual connection with the conduct of hostilities, such acts should also be qualified, depending on the subject and/or method of impact on plant life objects, under Article 245 of the CC or Article 246 of the CC.

Problems of realization of the right to a safe environment for life and health under martial law

The article is devoted to the study of problematic issues of realization of the right to a safe and healthy environment in the context of military aggression by the russian federation. It is emphasized that on February 24, 2022, the russian federation launched a war of aggression against the independence and territorial integrity of Ukraine, which is accompanied by the leveling of international humanitarian law, destruction of economic and natural resources, civilian and critical infrastructure, as well as numerous cases of violations of the environmental rights of Ukrainian citizens, in particular the right to a safe environment for life and health.
 The author formulates the features of the right to a safe environment for life and health: 1) it belongs to the complex of environmental rights; 2) it is enshrined in the Constitution and laws of Ukraine; 3) it applies to all persons, without reference to the citizenship of Ukraine; 4) it is realized by a person in order to satisfy his or her vital and physiological needs; 5) it is inalienable; 6) it acts as an opportunity for any person to satisfy his or her vital and physiological needs; 7) its realization does not require active actions on the part of citizens; 8) it is protected and defended in accordance with the procedure established by law.
 It is emphasized that the aggressor country resorts to nuclear blackmail, land contamination, pollution of soil, water, air, nature reserves, destruction of flora and fauna, which leads to violation of the provisions of the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques, Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions of 12.08.1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I).
 The documented crimes committed by the russian federation outlined in the article make it impossible to properly exercise the constitutional right to a safe environment for life and health, and Ukrainian citizens are unable to fully use environmental facilities and meet their own physiological needs with their help. The real extent of damage to the environment and the related long-term impact on public health from russian aggression can be assessed only after the war ends and all the territories of Ukraine are fully de­occupied.

BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR OF DROSOPHILA SUZUKII: THE KEY TO EFFICIENT HABITAT MANAGEMENT IN AGRICULTURAL CROPS

Drosophila suzukii has become a species of significant concern for agricultural crops worldwide. This insect is particularly worrisome for farmers due to its short life cycle, enabling rapid and prolific reproduction, resulting in substantial damage to fruit and vegetable crops.In this context, this article focuses on examining the biology and behavior of Drosophila suzukii, providing an in-depth understanding of these crucial aspects for efficient habitat management in agricultural crops. Recent research has shed light on the species' life cycle, highlighting it as a short one with a high reproductive rate. This means that the species has the potential to cause significant crop damage if not properly managed.Furthermore, the feeding preferences of Drosophila suzukii are a key factor in its behavior. This species tends to target ripe fruits, with a particular preference for soft-fleshed varieties, posing a major challenge in fruit cultivation. Understanding this aspect is essential for developing crop protection strategies.The article also addresses how this knowledge of the biology and behavior of Drosophila suzukii can be integrated into habitat management strategies in agricultural crops. Biological control agents and environmental modification techniques are becoming increasingly important in the fight against this pest.

Airspace in the Anthropocene

Technologies for manipulating the weather and climate have long been around, especially since the early 1950s. Weather modification applications were quickly weaponised to influence war and protest, until the 1978 UN Convention on the Prohibition of Military or any other hostile use of Environmental Modification Techniques. Reviewed interest in controlling weather and climate has grown again since. Technology to modify weather has been used consistently to modify weather at local scales, but regional applications are now being developed to mitigate impacts of wide-scale drought. Interest in climate modification technologies has grown rapidly in the past 15 years as back-stop solutions to the problem of global warming. Climate modification technologies (often called geoengineering or climate engineering) can largely be classed as either greenhouse gas removal or radiation management, the latter being more controversial. However, there is widespread concern as to the implications of geoengineering in terms of social justice and human rights; climate modification does not recognise political boundaries. In this paper, I will provide a brief review of how humanity has influenced the atmospheric environment above us since the Industrial Revolution, and how this chemical modification of the atmosphere kills millions of people every year, especially those who are poor and vulnerable. I will summarise major geoengineering techniques in play today, highlighting issues related to governance and human rights, relevant to this special issue on The Airspace Tribunal.

School Perspectives on The Implementation of Adaptive Physical Education in Cirebon City

This study aims to determine the perspectives of special schools regarding the implementation of adaptive physical education in Cirebon City. The research method employed in this study is a descriptive qualitative approach. Data collection techniques involve the use of the Triangulation method. Data analysis in this study utilizes the Miles and Huberman field models. The sampling technique utilizes random sampling. Based on the research findings and the discussions presented, it can be concluded that the initial implementation of adaptive physical education for children with special needs can be considered successful because it has achieved the objectives of adaptive physical education. Furthermore, the treatment provided by physical education teachers to children with special needs is consistent with that provided to regular students, with special modifications to enable children with special needs to participate in the same learning materials as their peers. However, the third observation indicates that not all lessons align with the previously created lesson plans (RPP). Teachers have more flexibility to adapt to the circumstances and conditions of both regular students and children with special needs. The four strategies for adaptive education include learning modification techniques, environmental modification techniques, and learning activity modification techniques.

The Legal Protection of Freshwater Resources and Related Installations during Warfare

Abstract Armed conflicts have an impact on freshwater resources and often damage water installations, which could be targeted or incidentally damaged, affecting water quality and quantity and limiting access for the civilian population. Thus, in situations of armed conflict, protecting freshwater resources and related installations becomes essential. International humanitarian law (IHL) and international environmental law (IEL) provide for relevant rules that limit the impact of armed conflicts on freshwater and water infrastructure. IHL protects civilian objects, objects indispensable to the survival of the civilian population, works and installations containing dangerous forces and the natural environment. It also prohibits employing poison or poisonous weapons and environmental modification techniques. IEL regulates the sustainable and environmentally sound use, development and management of water resources. Progress in the realm of the human right to water and the rise of environmental consciousness further necessitate an eco-friendly approach that recognizes comprehensive protection. Therefore, this article examines the interplay between IEL and IHL, explaining how IEL can contribute to the interpretation of IHL rules and exploring areas where IEL could complement IHL rules relevant to the protection of freshwater resources and related installations during warfare.

Legal Regulation of Environmental Protection during Armed Conflicts on the Example of Ukraine

The article analyzes the impact of military operations on the state of ecosystems and individual natural resources in Ukraine. Based on the analysis of Ukrainian and foreign sources, it was made a conclusion about the catastrophic damage to the environment caused by the military aggression of the Russian Federation. In particular, the environmental damage as of September 2022 is estimated at almost 1 trillion hryvnias and continues to grow daily.
 Taking into account the fact that the impact on the environment during armed conflicts almost always has a transboundary nature, author analyzed the provisions of international acts that regulate this problem. These are the Stockholm Declaration (1972); the World Charter of Nature; the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992); the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques; Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts; Convention on the prohibition of the development, production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons and on their destruction. It was established that all the mentioned documents call on the international community to take measures for preventing or minimizing the destructive impact on the environment during military operations.
 The author paid particular attention to Ukrainian legislation. The Instruction on the Procedure for Implementing the Norms of International Humanitarian Law in the Armed Forces of Ukraine requires following the provisions of international humanitarian law, including, in the context of environmental protection. In the Basic Principles (Strategy) of the State Environmental Policy of Ukraine for the Period Until 2030, it is noted that it is absolutely necessary to solve the issue of access to the objects of the military-defense industrial complex in order to carry out appropriate supervision and control over compliance with environmental legislation at these objects. A separate block of normative acts is devoted to the legal regulation of the procedure and methods of determining damage and losses caused to the environment of Ukraine as a result of the armed aggression of the Russian Federation.
 Despite the fact that the war continues, the development of normative acts aimed at regulating the reconstruction of destroyed or damaged territories and objects is already being observed. The author analyzed some of them, identified shortcomings and proposed ways to eliminate them.

Open Letter to the International Criminal Court Alleging United Nations Complicity in Planetary Treason

We provide a preponderance of evidence that worldwide covert environmental modification (geoengineering) activities have been ongoing for several decades, citing numerous peer-reviewed scientific and medical articles and other sources in support of our allegation that such activities are causing innumerable harms to Earth’s systems. These harms include, but are not limited to, catastrophic loss of wildlife, aggravation of global warming and climate chaos; disruption of habitats; aggravation of droughts and concomitant degradation of agriculture; and depletion of stratospheric ozone, which exposes surface life to deadly solar ultraviolet radiation. In 1978 the United Nations (UN) oversaw the creation of the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques (ENMOD), a deliberately vague and deceitful international treaty that has served as a Trojan horse to provide a “legal” basis for subsequent worldwide geoengineering activities (as described herein). Since the creation of the UN Environmental Program (UNEP) in 1972, the UN and some of its other agencies, including the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and the World Health Organization (WHO), has formally committed itself to the integrity of the planetary environment. We appeal to the International Criminal Court to render judgement in favor of the world’s individual citizens, whose fundamental rights have been abrogated by planetary geoengineering, as herein documented. We respectfully request the following relief from the International Criminal Court: 1) Immediate and permanent end to the ENMOD Convention; 2) Permanent global injunction on all activities undertaken under ENMOD’s authority; 3) Declassification of all documents related to ENMOD activities as well as making all such documents freely available to the world; 4) Establishment of a legal body, fashioned after the International Military Tribunal at Nuremburg, to hear evidence and render justice for planetary treason and crimes against humanity and the environment.

ЕКОНОМІКО-ПРАВОВИЙ ВИМІР ЗАБЕЗПЕЧЕННЯ УРБОЕКОЛОГІЧНОЇ БЕЗПЕКИ: СВІТОВИЙ ДОСВІД І ВИСНОВКИ ДЛЯ УКРАЇНИ

Проаналізовано економіко-правові аспекти світового досвіду забезпечення, відновлення і зміцнення урбоекологічної безпеки в умовах глобалізації, суспільних трансформацій та мілітарного впливу на довкілля. Досліджено наявне нормативно-правове й економічне забезпечення системи екологічної безпеки міст (урбоекологічної безпеки), сформоване на міжнародному та європейському рівнях. Обґрунтовано, що проведений економіко-правовий аналіз світового досвіду забезпечення урбоекологічної безпеки може і має бути адаптований у процесі розробки національних концептуальних, стратегічних чи програмних документів у сфері управління, фінансування і реалізації заходів з нормалізації якості довкілля та життєдіяльності населення техногенно навантажених українських міст. Надано пропозиції щодо адаптації та можливостей використання в українських містах світового досвіду з відновлення екологічної безпеки міст, що зазнали мілітарного впливу. Зокрема, запропоновано доповнити Програму ЄС з фінансування захисту навколишнього середовища та кліматичних заходів на 2022–2027 рр. спеціальною підпрограмою для України «Повоєнне відновлення довкілля». Обґрунтовано доцільність використання апробованих інструментів і експертного досвіду міжнародних організацій, передбачених Конвенцією ООН про заборону військового або будь-якого ворожого використання засобів впливу на природне середовище, щодо збирання, систематизації та комплексного оцінювання інформації і даних про вплив воєнних конфліктів на навколишнє природне середовище з метою розробки ефективних і визнаних на міжнародному рівні (сертифікованих, стандартизованих) методик визначення шкоди і збитків, завданих Україні збройною агресією РФ. Це створить нормативно-правове підґрунтя для їх відшкодування і завдяки цьому сприятиме відновленню та зміцненню екологічної безпеки українських міст.

Global Environmental Warfare

Unlike traditional forms of warfare that cause environmental harm as collateral damage, today vast segments of biota-populations, including humans, are at risk from undeclared global environmental warfare, undertaken through deception and deceit, orchestrated by undisclosed perpetrators for undisclosed purposes. As we reveal here, the purported goal of preventing environmental warfare was the key to developing a means to co-opt sovereign nations into waging covert, highly destructive environmental warfare against their own citizens. The means involved deceiving leaders of sovereign nations into signing onto a deceptively-worded “Trojan horse” international treaty ostensibly to prohibit environmental warfare, but which specifically does not prohibit “peaceful” environmental modification where “environmental modification techniques” refers to any technique for changing – through the deliberate manipulation of natural processes – the dynamics, composition or structure of the Earth, including its biota, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere, or of outer space.” Moreover, that international treaty mandates contribution and co-operation in unspecified environmental modification, by unspecified entities, without specificity of risks to human and environmental health. Although “environmental modification techniques” are applied and conducted with secrecy and deception, the horrific environmental damage, ascertained by scientific forensic investigations and reviewed here, cannot possibly be considered “peaceful” but instead constitute global environmental warfare. Citizens everywhere must wake up, look up, speak up, and demand an end to this environmental warfare.

Protection of Space Environment in the Light of Perspective Challenges of “Space Wars”

In article it is analyzed action in the space of the principle of prohibition of the use of force and threats (jus contra bellum). Also it is researched application of Geneva Law to space conflicts (jus in bello) and it correlations with another hard and soft norms of international law in the light of protection of space environment such as Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques, Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment 1972, Rio Declaration on Environment and Development 1992 etc. Beside this it is used practice of International Court of Justice for argumentation of positions and conclusions. Since space objects management is done remotely with help of software, author draw parallels between legal regulation of international conflicts in outer space and cyber space. Furthermore, it is researched specific features of application the principle of proportionality in international space armed conflicts with the aim of protection environment of space and Earth.

Geoengineering: Guidance Exists

![Figure][1] CREDIT: INGA SPENCE/ALAMY In their Policy Forum “End the deadlock on governance of geoengineering research” (15 March, p. [1278][1]), E. A. Parson and D. W. Keith recognize the environmental and policy risks posed by geoengineering methods and lay out a course of action to address them. They argue that a void in international governance of research exists and that geoengineering operations are subject to no international legal control. They further assess no progress in defining the boundary between small and large activities. In fact, relevant guidance does exist. The 1977 Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques—the so-called ENMOD Convention—is an international agreement that already governs aspects of geoengineering. The Convention was the result of a several-year policy development, set in motion by interest in the national security implications of geoengineering. The U.S. government investigated geoengineering techniques ([ 1 ][2]) and used weather modification (cloud seeding) as a weapon during the Vietnam War in the late 1960s and early 1970s ([ 2 ][3]). The Convention, recognizing the issue of scale, prohibits weapons uses that would have “widespread, long-lasting, or severe” effects. An agreed Understanding specifies that, for the purposes of the Convention, these terms refer to an area of several hundred square kilometers, a duration of months or about a season, and severity as “serious or significant disruption or harm to human life, natural and economic resources or other assets” ([ 3 ][4]). Parties commit to the “fullest possible” exchange of relevant information on peaceful geoengineering and to feasible international scientific and economic cooperation. If geoengineering research, let alone experiments or possibly operations, is to proceed, the ENMOD Convention and its negotiating history provide precedents and information. The need for a moratorium on geoengineering for weapons purposes is moot. The authors' discussion of a social bargain recognizes the importance of “international norms of cooperation and transparency.” Arms control already applies to geoengineering: Fortunately, one cooperative norm is already in place. 1. [↵][5]1. S. Weart , “The Discovery of Global Warming: Climate Modification Schemes” (2011); [www.aip.org/history/climate/RainMake.htm][6]. 2. [↵][7]1. D. Shapley , Science 184, 1059 (1974). [OpenUrl][8][FREE Full Text][9] 3. [↵][10]Federation of American Scientists, Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques (1980); [www.fas.org/nuke/control/enmod/text/environ2.htm][11]. [1]: pending:yes [2]: #ref-1 [3]: #ref-2 [4]: #ref-3 [5]: #xref-ref-1-1 View reference 1 in text [6]: http://www.aip.org/history/climate/RainMake.htm [7]: #xref-ref-2-1 View reference 2 in text [8]: {openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DScience%26rft.stitle%253DScience%26rft.aulast%253DShapley%26rft.auinit1%253DD.%26rft.volume%253D184%26rft.issue%253D4141%26rft.spage%253D1059%26rft.epage%253D1061%26rft.atitle%253DWeather%2BWarfare%253A%2BPentagon%2BConcedes%2B7-Year%2BVietnam%2BEffort%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1126%252Fscience.184.4141.1059%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F17736187%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx [9]: /lookup/ijlink/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6MzoiUERGIjtzOjExOiJqb3VybmFsQ29kZSI7czozOiJzY2kiO3M6NToicmVzaWQiO3M6MTM6IjE4NC80MTQxLzEwNTkiO3M6NDoiYXRvbSI7czoyNDoiL3NjaS8zNDAvNjEzMi81NDguMS5hdG9tIjt9czo4OiJmcmFnbWVudCI7czowOiIiO30= [10]: #xref-ref-3-1 View reference 3 in text [11]: http://www.fas.org/nuke/control/enmod/text/environ2.htm

Global ecopolitics: crisis, governance, and justice

List of Acronyms Preface Acknowledgments 1. Planetary Anxiety and Collective Dilemmas Sovereignty, Global Governance, and Public Goods Shades of Green The Crosscutting Dilemma: Our Growing Numbers Delving Deeper into Global Ecopolitics 2. International Arrangements: Actors and Effectiveness Multi-scaled Adaptive Governance Individuals and Communities Governments and Governance International Law and Institutions Wicked Problems: Measuring Effectiveness in International Arrangements 3. Conserving Biodiversity and Wildlife Rising Concerns: The Historical Context The Convention on Biological Diversity The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna Redefining the Wealth 4. Deforestation and Land Degradation Deforestation The International Tropical Timber Agreement Desertification The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification Taking Root 5. Air Pollution and Climate Change Atmospheric Pollution The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP) The Ozone Layer Arrangement The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change Deep Breaths 6. Blue Peril: Oceans and Rivers The Poles The Oceans Crises UNCLOS Freshwater Scarcity The Veins of Life: Shared River Arrangements Surviving the Tides 7. Trade and the Global Environment Toxic Trade The Basel Convention on Trade in Hazardous Substances The WTO and the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) Toward Ethical Investments 8. War and Peace and Justice Ecocide: The Circle of Death The Atmospheric Test Ban Treaty The Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques (ENMOD) Toward Environmental Justice and Human Security 9. Another Convention Needed? Invasive Alien Species Invasive Alien Species: The Problem(s) Regional Efforts Toward an International Convention on IAS? 10. Governance Gaps and Green Goals Nanotechnology Global Tourism Food Security A Global Energy Strategy? From Angst to Resolve Afterword: What Can You Do? References Index

Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration

Frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) describes a spectrum of clinically, pathologically and genetically heterogeneous neurodegenerative disorders of unknown aetiology. FTLD spectrum disorders collectively represent a leading cause of early-onset dementia, with most cases presenting between 45 and 64 years of age. FTLD is characterized by progressive changes in behaviour, executive dysfunction and/or language impairment and can be differentiated clinically into three frontotemporal dementia (FTD) syndromes as follows: (i) behavioural variant (bvFTD); (ii) semantic dementia (SD); and (iii) progressive nonfluent aphasia (PNFA). Additionally, there is a significant clinical, pathological and genetic overlap between FTD and motor neuron disease/amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (FTD-ALS) and the atypical parkinsonian syndromes, progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) and corticobasal syndrome (CBS). bvFTD is characterized by progressive behavioural impairment and a decline in executive function with frontal lobe-predominant atrophy, SD by a loss of object knowledge with prominent anomia and asymmetrical atrophy of the anterior temporal lobes and PNFA by expressive or motor speech deficits with predominantly left peri-sylvian atrophy. Recent advances in molecular biology and immunohistochemical staining techniques have further classified the FTLD spectrum disorders based upon the predominant neuropathological protein into three main categories: (i) microtubule-associated protein tau (FTLD-TAU); (ii) TAR DNA-binding protein-43 (FTLD-TDP); and (iii) fused in sarcoma protein (FTLD-FUS). Up to 40% of FTD patients report a family history of neurodegenerative illness, and one-third to one-half of familial cases of FTD follow an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern. Mutations in MAPT, PGRN, TARDBP, VCP and CHMP2B have been described, along with a recently identified C9ORF72 hexanucleotide repeat expansion. To date, there are no US FDA-approved treatments or disease-modifying therapies for FTD. Pharmacological strategies have focused on neurotransmitter replacement and modulation for the treatment of behavioural, motor and cognitive symptoms of FTD, and include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), atypical antipsychotics, acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and glutamate NMDA receptor antagonists. At present, adequate management of FTD symptoms involves a combination of pharmacological therapy with behavioural, physical and environmental modification techniques.

Undesired behaviour in horses: A review of their development, prevention, management and association with welfare

SummaryUndesired behaviours are a common problem amongst leisure and sporting horses in the UK and have a significant impact on the work of equine practitioners. In most cases, behaviours considered aberrant by owners are normal responses for their horses. Behaviours perceived as ‘naughtiness’ may in fact signify direct actions to avoid pain‐ or fear‐inducing stimuli. Examples that practitioners might deal with include trailer loading problems, avoidance of having saddlery equipment applied or reluctance to leave the yard. Even where no evidence of physical problems or pain can be detected, avoidance behaviours may reflect learnt responses that previously led to success in evading unpleasant consequences. Because owners often misunderstand the reason for such behaviours to develop in their horses, attempts at resolution often involve suppression or punishment based approaches. Although repeated subjugation of undesirable responses may ultimately appear to resolve the overt behavioural problem in some cases, in many others it can lead to a worsening of the problem, the development of alternative avoidance strategies or the horse learning that escaping the source of its pain or anxiety is impossible and ceasing to respond. Some horses develop abnormal or repetitive behaviours, which are not in the ‘normal’ behavioural repertoire. These stereotypic behaviours, sometimes termed ‘vices’, can indicate strategies to cope with a suboptimal environment. Indeed, their performance may serve to improve the situation for the animal. Attempts to suppress or prevent horses showing stereotypies, therefore, will generally exacerbate the underlying welfare problem. When dealing with either stereotypies or avoidance behaviours, it is important to recognise the role of learning in their development and maintenance. Resolution involves both understanding the underlying motivation for showing the behaviour and how it has become reinforced and established over time, for each individual case. The use of environmental change and/or behavioural modification techniques that are both successful and welfare compatible, are important in dealing with undesired behaviour in horses and selection of suitable professionals for referral an important responsibility for the equine practitioner.

Context-Based Assessment and Intervention for Problem Behavior in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder

The present study used a context-based model of assessment and intervention to explore whether interventions that modify context result in reduction of problem behavior in ecologically valid settings (i.e., typical routines implemented by typical education personnel in neighborhood schools). The Contextual Assessment Inventory (CAI) and a postassessment interview were administered to parents and teachers of eight children with Autism Spectrum Disorder to identify problem contexts. Then, environmental modification techniques were implemented in three priority contexts: namely, transitions, termination of preferred activities, and presence of a feared stimulus. Our results demonstrated an almost complete elimination of problem behavior in the priority contexts as well as successful completion of activities and routines related to those contexts. We discuss the value of conceptualizing problem behavior as a function of context with respect to facilitating both assessment and intervention, and the need for enhancing breadth of effects to determine the larger impact of a context-based approach on promoting meaningful behavior change in the community.

Ocean Fertilisation and Climate Change: The Need to Regulate Emerging High Seas Uses

Abstract Geo-engineering and environmental modification techniques are increasingly being proposed as climate change mitigation strategies. Ocean fertilisation has been promoted as a simple solution to the problem of increasing atmospheric CO2 levels. However, neither its environmental safety nor its efficacy has been adequately assessed. This article examines the legality of ocean fertilisation under the law of the sea and concludes that it is subject to regulation under the London Convention and London Protocol as its potential for harm is contrary to the aims of these agreements. Hence, the sale of carbon offsets to fund ocean fertilisation activities should be prohibited unless and until an adequate risk assessment based on independent peer-reviewed science has established that the benefits outweigh the potential for harm, and appropriate regulation is in place to ensure that real, measurable, long-term CO2 sequestration can be independently verified. The initial uncertainties surrounding the appropriate regulatory regime for ocean fertilisation highlight the need for a comprehensive global regime for the prior assessment and on-going monitoring of existing, new and emerging high seas activities and uses to ensure they do not have adverse impacts on marine biodiversity and the marine environment in areas beyond national jurisdiction.

Neuropsychiatric symptoms of fragile X syndrome: pathophysiology and pharmacotherapy.

Fragile X syndrome is the leading inherited form of mental retardation, and second only to Down's syndrome as a cause of mental retardation attributable to an identifiable genetic abnormality. Fragile X syndrome is caused by a defect in the fragile X mental retardation 1 gene (FMR1), located near the end of the long arm of the X chromosome. FMR1 normally synthesises the fragile X protein (FMRP), but mutations in FMR1 lead to a lack of FMRP synthesis, resulting in fragile X syndrome. While the specific function of FMRP is not yet fully understood, the protein is known to be important for normal brain development. The physical, cognitive and behavioural features of individuals with fragile X syndrome depend on gender (females have two X chromosomes, one active and one inactive) and the molecular status of the mutation (premutation, full mutation or mosaic). Features of the behavioural profile of individuals with fragile X syndrome include hypersensitivity to stimuli, overarousability, inattention, hyperactivity and (mostly in men) explosive and aggressive behaviour to others or self. Social anxiety, other anxiety disorders, depression, impulse control disorder and mood disorders are the most common psychiatric disorders diagnosed in individuals with fragile X syndrome, although no formal studies have been undertaken. There have been very few psychopharmacological studies of the treatment of behaviours associated with fragile X syndrome. These limited studies and surveys of psychotropic drugs used in individuals with fragile X syndrome suggest that stimulants are helpful for hyperactivity, that alpha(2)-adrenoceptor agonists and beta-adrenoceptor antagonists help to control overarousability, impulsivity and aggressiveness, and that SSRIs can control anxiety, impulsivity and irritability, alleviate depressive symptoms and decrease aggressive and self-injurious behaviour. Typical and atypical antipsychotics in combination with other psychotropics have been used for control of psychotic disorders and severe aggressive behaviours. Mood stabilisers have been found to be useful when mood dysregulation or mood disorders are present with or without aggressive behaviour. Folic acid and L-acetylcarnitine (levacecarnine) have not been found to improve deficits or behaviours. As there is no specific psychotropic drug for any of the deficits or behaviours associated with fragile X syndrome, clinicians are advised to diagnose any psychiatric syndromes or disorders present and treat them with the appropriate psychotropic drug. If no psychiatric disorder can be diagnosed and the patient's challenging behaviours cannot be controlled with environmental manipulation or behaviour modification techniques, the most benign psychotropic drug should be used. Antipsychotics should be reserved for psychotic disorders, for impulse control disorders (used in combination with other psychotropics), or when challenging behaviours constitute an emergency. In the future, new medications targeting molecules implicated in the modulation of anxiety, fear and fear responding will be useful for treating the social anxiety and overarousability exhibited by individuals with fragile X syndrome.

Recent Actions Regarding Treaties to Which the United States is a Party

Convention on the prohibition of military or any other hostile use of environmental modification techniques, with annex. Done at Geneva May 18.1977.Entered into force Oct. 5,1978; for the U.S.Jan 17, 1980. TIAS9614; 31 UST 333. [16 I.L.M. 88 (1997)].

Impacts from Mosquito Control-induced Sulphur Mobilization in a Cape Cod Estuary

Insect control programmes sometimes include environmental modification techniques such as diking and drainage. The impacts of such techniques are not often known or assessed. As a telling example having wide implications, we present an analysis of impacts in a small estuary which has been subjected to both diking and ditching—primarily for mosquito control.The major impacts stem from katteklei formation. Desiccated salt-marsh sediments produce acidified leachates which result from oxidation of pyrites. Lowered pH and high (acid-mobilized) aluminium concentrations both surpass levels that are known to be toxic to aquatic fauna. Fish and invertebrate communities in the basin are impoverished, and important commercial species such as American Eels and Alewives are heavily decimated. The acid-tolerant mosquito Aedes cantator thrives, however. Thus a natural system of substantial economic and aesthetic value has been inadvertently devastated through application of unnecessarily harsh as well as, in this case, ineffective mosquito control methods. Their use should be re-evaluated for similar impacts wherever such application has been carried out or is being contemplated.