Environmental Economic Valuation Research Articles

THE CARBON FOOTPRINT AND MONETARY VALUE OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPAIRMENT BY THE DISPLACEMENT TOWARDS PROTECTED AREAS IN ECUADOR

Objective: Generate environmental awareness and economic valuation of the pollution caused by the movement of people to the protected areas (PA) of Ecuador from the city of Ambato. Theoretical Framework: The perspectives of alternative development and sustainable development models provide the theoretical framework that supports this work and allows us to envision alternatives for solving environmental conflicts such as pollution and environmental deterioration of the country's protected areas. Method: The methodology used was built based on environmental assessment methods. Thus, first, the country's protected areas were identified, and the distances from Ambato to the PAs in kilometers were calculated. Then, the fuel used for the trip was calculated, as well as the fuel consumption of the round trip, which helped to obtain the carbon footprint generated by the transfer and determine the environmental cost of the carbon dioxide emission. Results and Discussion: The investigation results determined that the cost of environmental contamination when visiting the 47 Ecuadorian protected areas was $395,391.37. Research Implications: However, the contribution of this study focuses on providing evidence that conserving nature is more profitable than exploiting it. Originality/Value: The study demonstrates the need to change transportation for a sustainable mobility system to achieve social, economic, and environmental balance.

Environmental economic valuation of carob (prosopis pallida) from Lambayeque used in charcoal for grilled chickens

Environmental economic valuation of carob (prosopis pallida) from Lambayeque used in charcoal for grilled chickens

Research effort devoted to regulating and supporting ecosystem services by environmental scientists and economists.

The economic valuation of ecosystem services in part reflects the desire to use conventional economic tools (markets and economic instruments) to conserve ecosystem services. However, for regulating and supporting ecosystem services that depend on ecosystem structure and function, estimation of economic value requires estimates of the current level of underlying ecological functions first. This primary step is in principle, the job of environmental scientists, not economists. Here, we provide a coarse-level quantitative assessment of the relationship between the research effort expended by environmental scientists (on the biophysical values) and economists (on the monetary values) on 15 different regulating and supporting services in 32 ecosystem types using peer-reviewed article hits retrieved from bibliographic databases as a measure of research effort. We find a positive, moderately strong (r = 0.69) correlation between research efforts in the two domains, a result that, while encouraging, is likely to reflect serendipity rather than the deliberate design of integrated environmental science-economics research programs. Our results suggest that compared to environmental science research effort economic valuation is devoted to a smaller, less diverse set of ecosystem services but a broader, more diverse, set of ecosystem types. The two domains differed more with respect to the ecosystem services that are the major focus of research effort than they did with respect to the ecosystem types of principal research interest. For example, carbon sequestration, erosion regulation, and nutrient cycling receive more relative research effort in the environmental sciences; air quality regulation in economic valuations. For both domains, cultivated areas, wetlands, and urban/semi-urban ecosystem types received relatively large research effort, while arctic and mountain tundra, cave and subterranean, cryosphere, intertidal/littoral zone, and kelp forest ecosystem types received negligible research effort. We suggest ways and means by which the field of sustainability science may be improved by the design and implementation of a searchable database of environmental science and economic valuation literature as well as a global ecosystem service research network and repository that explicitly links research on the estimation and prediction of biophysical ecosystem functions with that of the social sciences and other knowledge systems. These suggestions would, at least in principle, facilitate a more efficient research agenda between economists and environmental scientists and aid management, regulatory and judicial decision-makers.

Social desirability bias in the environmental economic valuation: An inferred valuation approach

Environmental economic valuation allows to derive values from individuals' behaviour in hypothetical markets, but it is not exempt from certain biases. This work aims to evidence the existence of Social Desirability Bias (SDB) in the use of the stated preference method for environmental valuation. SDB is due to the consideration that, when interviewed, people provide responses to match the interviewer's expectations or to be consistent with social norms. The Inferred Valuation Approach (IVA) was used to identify and quantify the social desirability bias in a choice experiment survey conducted to estimate the benefit of protecting a coastal Natura 2000 site. The results revealed the existence of a SDB that increases by 2.8-fold the benefits of the valued environmental assets. It is also found greater differences between use and non-use values when the IVA is used.

RASGOS DE SOSTENIBILIDAD EN LOS SISTEMAS PRODUCTIVOS FAMILIARES ESTABLECIDOS POR INMIGRANTES INDÍGENAS EN MORELOS, MÉXICO

<p><strong>Background</strong>. The social reproduction of indigenous migrants is adjusted to the receiving territory based on the work for the management of biocultural diversity. This study corresponds to the territorial unit "La Joya", in Ayala, Morelos, configured by indigenous people from the state of Guerrero. <strong>Objective</strong>. Explain the sustainability traits of family production systems (FPS) established by immigrants to Morelos in the last 20 years. <strong>Methodology</strong>. The sampling was 12.5% of the FPS, the difficulties of the languages and disposition of the informants were dissipated with ethnobiological techniques such as guided tours and semi-structured interviews, because they allowed to investigate the management of plants and animals, costs of labor work, use value and exchange value, the structure of the plants used, the number of eggs and laying cycle per year for the birds, and the destination of production, with this information an annual availability calendar of goods. The structure and ecological composition were obtained by sampling the total surface of 10 FPS. The attributes calculated were: species richness and abundances. The coverage of the plants, the house and the animal pens were located in Cartesian plans. With items from both approaches, the annual economic valuation of the management and of the production of each FPS was obtained, both integrated the environmental economic valuation. <strong>Results.</strong> Include eight management activities; the values of use of biocultural diversity were 11, the food with 47 species stands out. The composition is 96 plant species and 13 animals that provide goods for self-supply and sale throughout the year. Its economic valuation, including the family work that allows the conservation of FPS the reaches between one and 30 times the minimum salary. <strong>Implications</strong>. The social group studied comes from an área whit vegetation and a climate similar to the one that they immigrated to, which facilitates its biocultural reproduction in small lands, whose structure and composition of plants and animals is similar to that reported for communities originating from Morelos, both with sustainability indicators. <strong>Conclusion</strong>. The sustainability of the FPS is the result of social work aimed at the traditional management of biological diversity, which allows the sustained production of goods with use values for self-supply and exchange values that enter monetary resources, whose sum It shows the environmental economic efficiency, the environmental economic efficiency, the contribution to the survival and social reproduction of indigenous migrants.</p>

The impact of a wetland conservation act on environmental evaluation: taking Gaomei Wetland as an example

Wetlands are multi-functional ecosystems and important for global environment. Taiwan implemented the Wetland Conservation Act in 2013. This study surveyed in Gaomei Wetland by conjoint analysis. The purpose of this research is to examine environmental value by willingness to pay (WTP) of the Gaomei Wetland, to study the relationship between the environmental value of the water quality, mangrove coverage and bird species in Gaomei Wetland, the popularity of the Wetland Conservation Act and the relationship between the Wetland Conservation Act and environmental economic valuation. The results show that approximately 70% of respondents were willing to pay to improve the wetland environment, the females' WTP is higher than males, and young peoples' WTP is higher than older people. Those who were not willing to pay believed that protecting the wetlands should be the government's responsibility. When considering different ecological attributes, respondents prioritised water quality over bird diversity and mangrove coverage.

The Impact of a Wetland Conservation Act on Environmental Evaluation: Taking Gaomei Wetland as an Example

Wetlands are multi-functional ecosystems and important for global environment. Taiwan implemented the Wetland Conservation Act in 2013. This study surveyed in Gaomei Wetland by conjoint analysis. The purpose of this research is to examine environmental value by willingness to pay (WTP) of the Gaomei Wetland, to study the relationship between the environmental value of the water quality, mangrove coverage and bird species in Gaomei Wetland, the popularity of the Wetland Conservation Act and the relationship between the Wetland Conservation Act and environmental economic valuation. The results show that approximately 70% of respondents were willing to pay to improve the wetland environment, the females' WTP is higher than males, and young peoples' WTP is higher than older people. Those who were not willing to pay believed that protecting the wetlands should be the government's responsibility. When considering different ecological attributes, respondents prioritised water quality over bird diversity and mangrove coverage.

PAGAMENTO POR SERVIÇOS ECOSSISTÊMICOS E O DESENVOLVIMENTO SUSTENTÁVEL NA GUIANA FRANCESA

O presente trabalho busca entender se e como a Guiana Francesa pode se utilizar dos pagamento de serviços ecossistêmicos como forma de proteger a parte da Amazônia em seu território da exploração exacerbada, de forma a realizar ao mesmo tempo um desenvolvimento sustentável que atenda sua população, que apesar de ostentar uma situação econômica melhor que as presentes na América Latina, não se aproxima da excelente condição dos compatriotas franceses do continente europeu. Tal estudo se realizará utilizando os métodos dedutivo e indutivo, com técnica bibliográfica, buscando através da análise da valoração econômica ambiental, dos preceitos de pagamento por serviços ecossistêmicos e compreendendo a situação histórico geográfica e socioeconômica da Guiana francesa demostrar que o pagamento por serviços ecossistêmicos pode sim auxiliar na independência econômica do departamento da Guiana em relação à França metropolitana e ao mesmo tempo evitar o crescimento desordenado e a exploração ilegal na região. Para tanto se utilizará, por marco teórico, a teoria do desenvolvimento sustentável de Freitas (2011) para concluir pela necessidade de efetivar os PSE na Guiana Francesa como forma de garantir seu real desenvolvimento sustentável.

Valoración Económica Ambiental del Recurso Aire en el Cantón Riobamba

El enfoque de este proyecto se basa en la Valoración Económica Ambiental del recurso aire en el Cantón Riobamba el cual consiste en la aplicación del método de Valoración Contingente además de conocer la Disposición a Pagar de la localidad, el objetivo es dar un valor económico al recurso aire para mejorar o conservar la calidad del aire de Riobamba. Se definió una línea base del recurso aire el cual se estableció mediante información obtenida de los informes de los monitoreos de la calidad del aire realizados por el GADM Riobamba, los parámetros de los monitoreos fueron Partículas Sedimentables, Dióxido de Azufre, Dióxido de Nitrógeno, Ozono y Benceno, también se determinó las áreas de estudio donde se tomó como referencia las estaciones de monitoreo, definiendo tres zonas Urbano (Norte -Centro), Urbano Marginal (UNACH-EMAPAR) y Rural (Gatazo Zambrano), en estas zonas de estudio se empleó el Método de Valoración Contingente el que consiste en preguntar de forma directa mediante la aplicación de encuestas dirigidas a la sociedad riobambeña en cada uno de los sectores con la finalidad de obtener información suficiente para establecer un valor monetario para el recuso aire, así mismo con la información obtenida se realizó el análisis estadístico de los datos mediante la utilización de softwares específicos. Se estableció que las personas encuestadas para el sector Norte fue una disposición a pagar de $0.94, para el sector Centro fue de $0.86, para el sector UNACH fue de $0.79, mientras que el sector EMAPAR fue de $0.86 y por último el sector de Gatazo que fue de $0.65, todos estos valores a través de aportes anuales para mantener, mejorar y conservación del recurso aire.

EVALUACIÓN ECONÓMICA AMBIENTAL PARA EL USO CONSUNTIVO DEL PINO DE AUSTRALIA (CASUARINA EQUISETIFOLIA) EN EL SECTOR AMIGOS DEL MAR DE LA PLAYA SANTA LUCÍA DE CAMAGÜEY, CUBA.


 Abstract
 Santa Lucía Beach, Camagüey, Cuba, has important natural values that are currently marketed as a touristic destine of sun and beach. The main objective of this paper is to carry out an environmental economic valuation for the consumptive use of Australian Pine (Casuarina equisetifolia L.) in the beach sector known as “Amigos del Mar”. The intervention area has 9,01 hectares and it is located into the borders of the sector “Amigos del Mar”. The actions, that include clearing and stump removing, were contracted to Cooperative of construction “Pirámide”. The methodological procedure of the work contains the premises assumed by the authors, shows its methodological steps and can be used for other species. The estimated consumptive use represents more than 86 times the amount of conventional sale price. This paper demonstrates the importance of combining instruments of environmental economic instruments with other research related to the elimination and control of this pine. The results of are obtained in the framework of the International Project GEF/UNDP “Enhancing the prevention, control, and management of Invasive Alien Species in vulnerable ecosystems in Cuba” and the Plan of Cuban State for facing climatic changes known as “Tarea Vida”. 
 
 Key words: environmental economic valuation, consumptive use of Australian Pine (Casuarina equisetifolia L.), Santa Lucía Beach, Camagüey, Cuba

Environmental Inequality and Economic Valuation

I study how the economic value of a heterogeneously distributed environmental public good depends on how the endowment with this good and income are distributed. I find that the effect of environmental inequality on the societal willingness to pay (WTP) for the environmental good is determined both by its substitutability and by the correlation of its provision with income. Specifically, environmental inequality decreases societal WTP for substitutes, but this effect is reversed if the environmental good is a complement or distributed strongly in favour of richer households. Moreover, I show that richer households living in places where environmental good endowment is high increases (decreases) societal WTP if and only if the environmental good is a substitute for (complement to) consumption goods. I propose novel adjustment factors for structural benefit transfer to control for differences in the spatial distribution of environmental goods. Using forest preservation in Poland as an empirical example, I find that societal WTP is up to 4% higher for equal access to forests and up to 8% higher for an equal distribution of both income and access to forests.

Analysis of environmental damage and environmental economic valuation on tropical rain forest destruction in Simalungun Regency, North Sumatera Province, Indonesia

Analysis of environmental damage and environmental economic valuation on tropical rain forest destruction in Simalungun Regency, North Sumatera Province, Indonesia

Social values and sustainability: a retrospective view on the contribution of economics

Since the introduction of the ecosystem services (ES) concept, major discussions within sustainability sciences revolved around the values of nature. In these discussions, environmental economic valuation has been heavily criticised for falling short with regard to conceptual, ethical and methodological issues. In most cases, the critique has been limited to the realm of neoclassical economics. In particular, concerns have been voiced that economic valuation, following its individualistic and instrumental perspective, is unable to capture social values of sustainability. However, the current critique against economic theory does not account for the long traditions in economic theory dealing with social values. This is where this paper steps in: it seeks to review contributions of economic theory to the literature on social values. The aim is to shed light on theories outside neoclassical mainstream economics and to identify recurrent themes in these theories. The identified theories (among others: Kapp’s theory of social cost; Harsanyi’s utilitarianism; Sen’s theories of meta-preferences, commitment and sympathy; Buchanan’s constitutional economics; and Musgrave’s theory of merit goods) emphasise the existence of value categories that transcend individual values and narrow self-interest. Thereby, they may contribute to strengthening the theoretical foundation for the analysis and elicitation of social values of sustainability.

The improvement of solidwaste management in Cibodas Botanical Garden through environmental economic valuation using the travel cost method

Cibodas Botanical Garden (CBG) is believed to have high environmental value for its function as conservation area and beautiful scenery. However, prior to this research, there is lack of economic valuation to determine the total value of CBG, including its environment. The local government, on the other hand, needs such environmental economic valuation to execute better decisions related to the CBG. This study aims at providing the mostly-needed economic valuation through the application of Travel Cost Method. The Travel Cost Method (TCM) is a method to calculate the economic value of products or services that do not own market value. This method utilises total cost of consumers who travel to certain places, preferably tourist destinations. The cost spent by consumers are considered as their willingness to pay (WTP) for the visited destination(s). In this study, TCM is used by preparing questionnaires for Cibodas visitors, analysing the results of the questionnaires, calculating the total economic value (TEV) of Cibodas, determining the consumer surplus, and proposing environmental programs at CBG. At the end, it was calculated that the TEV of Cibodas Botanical Garden is IDR113,072,532,700 with average WTP of the visitors IDR202,484 per visitor and the consumer surplus of IDR32,344 per visitor. Also, this study reveals that solid waste management improvement at CBG can be funded by potential income from the consumer surplus.

Attributes of Biothic Indicators as an Instrument for Assessing Ecosystem Integrity

The biotic indicators, or bioindicators, constitute a reference that con-tributes to the resolution of different issues associated with the state and evolution of the natural habitats where they are located. The information they provide can be interpreted mainly in terms of sensitivity, tolerance to different types of stress and the integrity of a forest ecosystem. The objective is (commentary 1) to present the characteristics of the bioin-dicators, which are capable of reflecting the ecosystemic integrity and provide valuation references in forest habitats. The attributes were re-ported thanks to the methodological strategy of bibliographic review through a theoretical sampling, taking into account 44 bibliographical sources that covered a time lapse between 1985 and 2016. As a result of the review, there were obtained a total of seventeen prevalent attributes in bioindicator species. Part of the discussions focus on recognizing that the study of bioindicators, and in general the principles associated with bioindication, provide potential criteria to resolve concerns beyond fully biological or ecological aspects and that are relevant in scenarios of environmental economic and/or ecological valuation. Finally, this review concludes that it has been possible to present a consensus of attributes and, at the same time, show some emerging attributes associated with biotic indicators that contribute to the analysis of the selection of bioin-dicator species in different studies.

Marrying Unmarried Literatures: The Water Footprint and Environmental (Economic) Valuation

In this commentary, we set out the rationale for bringing together two research fields: Water Footprint Assessment and environmental (economic) valuation, which have evolved separately. This has the potential to inform the efficient allocation of virtual water flows at a global scale. It would also address some of the aims and objectives in the Water Footprint Assessment Manual regarding the assessment of environmental impacts and their sustainability, which thus far have not been covered in the literature. We also indicate how established practice in the environmental valuation community would need to develop to facilitate productive exchange between the two fields. Finally, we outline the key developments in the non-peer reviewed grey literature that signal the merit of such an exchange.

Valoração econômica contingente dos recursos ambientais do ecossistema manguezal em São Caetano de Odivelas (PA)

A importância dos recursos ambientais e naturais para vida humana está cada vez mais evidente. O(s) ecossistema(s) dos manguezais são importantes para o equilíbrio do meio ambiente, além de ser considerado o mais rico ecossistema marinho, depois dos recifes de corais. Eles são importantes não apenas para a vida marinha e a qualidade da água do mar, mas também para inúmeros outros organismos que dependem dele no seu ciclo de vida. Além disso, o mangue, através de suas copas, sequestra dióxido de carbono (CO2) da atmosfera, amenizando o efeito estufa, além de servirem como ‘barreiras naturais’ contra a erosão. Contudo, a extração descontrolada da vida marinha, como acontece nas RESEX (unidade de conservação), o uso da madeira para lenha e outros fins, o aterramento para a construção de casas de veraneio, marinas, portos, etc. e ainda a construção de fazendas marinhas, como as que criam camarão estão cada vez mais extirpando o(s) mangue(s) para, em seu lugar, criarem tanques de reprodução. Outra ameaça é a agricultura próxima ao manguezal, pois a água que cai das chuvas ‘lava’ o chão, levando agrotóxicos até o mangue. A poluição, de forma geral, é outra causa da perda de mangues no Brasil e no mundo. Diante da preocupação com a sustentabilidade deste ecossistema, a valoração econômica ambiental apresenta-se como uma ferramenta fundamental na formulação e avaliação de políticas públicas orientadas ao desenvolvimento sustentável e a preservação dos recursos ambientais (naturais) daquele ecossistema. A ‘criação’ do mercado hipotético envolvendo os usos e valores diretos e indiretos e os não usos de opção e existência do manguezal, respectivamente, foi concebido com a finalidade de propor a constituição de uma política visando preservar o ecossistema manguezal em sua totalidade, o qual se instituiria numa transferência de renda na forma de compensatória ambiental, para as famílias que deixariam de ter acesso aos recursos do manguezal. Esta remuneração deveria ser correspondente ao valor consultivo de usos direto e indireto e de não uso – opção e existência, mínimo obtido dos manguezais. Adicionalmente, as famílias deveriam se comprometer a preservar os manguezais, tornando-se os fiscais dos manguezais de sua localidade. O estudo comprovou que, apesar do conhecimento empírico local acerca dos serviços ecossistêmicos, a junção daquele com o conhecimento científico proporciona melhor elicitação na estimação dos valores econômicos de uso e, sobretudo, de não uso dos recursos ambientais, o que gera uma estimativa mais significante em termos do VERA.

Valoración económica del consumo y producción de materias primas para la fabricación de biodiésel en Guatemala

Objetivo: realizar la valoración económica del consumo y producción de materias primas para la elaboración de biodiésel en Guatemala. Metodología: se utilizó fue el Método de Valoración Contingente para estimar el valor económico-ambiental que los consumidores y productores le otorgan a la producción de las materias primas Higuerillo (Ricinus communis) y Piñón (Jatropha curcas) para generación de biodisel. Para el caso de la Palma Africana (Elaeis guinnensis), se utilizó el método de valoración denominado Cambio de Productividad para establecer el excedente del productor y el método de valoración contingente para determinar el excedente de los consumidores. Resultados: los resultados del análisis de valoración económica ambiental reportan bienestar o excedentes para el consumo de biodiésel y la producción de las tres materias primas a valor presente en el orden de los US $71 millardos de dólares para un periodo de quince años y con la meta de sustituir el 80% del diésel por biodiésel con el cultivo y producción de 374,832 hectáreas. De este excedente total, el 99.76% está dado por el excedente de los consumidores por lo que el bienestar de los productores de las materias primas a valor actual se estimó en US $169 millones. Limitaciones: son las propias de la metodología de valoración económica que se utilizó, ya que al generar mercados hipotéticos se pueden caer en sesgos de la información los cuales se reducen por las técnicas estadísticas utilizadas. Conclusiones: se recomienda que la asignación de recursos se debe orientar a la demanda de los compradores que más valoran el consumo de biodiésel, es decir aquellos que muestran una mayor disposición a pagar (DAP).

Disposição a pagar pela recuperação/preservação do Rio Apodi-Mossoró

A presente pesquisa objetivou identificar a disposição a pagar da população pela preservação/recuperação do rio Apodi-Mossoró. Finalidade essa, acentuada pelo grande número de poluentes existentes no rio, partindo do entendimento que este ocorre em função do uso direto e indireto do rio Apodi-Mossoró, acreditando em uma coparticipação de toda a sociedade local. Neste sentido utilizou-se de uma ferramenta da teoria microeconômica neoclássica, especificamente da economia ambiental, e entre os diversos métodos de valoração econômica ambiental que esta ramificação teórica trabalha, optando-se pela utilização do método de valoração contingente, o mesmo é baseado na revelação das preferências dos consumidores e busca capturar a disposição máxima, ou preço de reserva, refletindo uma analise custo-benefício. Sua escolha também estava atrelada a capacidade de método capturar valor de opção e existência, via simulação de mercado hipotético, já que não existe mercado específico para os valores da biodiversidade e qualidade ambiental de um rio. O trabalho ora, composto, se desenvolve por meio de uma revisão bibliográfica densa, principalmente valor econômico do meio ambiente visto que, não é corriqueiro e, portanto necessita de ser compreendido. Posterior à aplicação de pesquisa piloto foi feito alguns ajustes no questionário e em seguida foi executada a pesquisa final, onde foram aplicados 300 questionários, 150 com a população ribeirinha e 150 com a população em geral do município. Os dados coletados foram compilados e analisados por meio de software estatístico realizando regressão linear múltipla e aplicando o modelo logit, tendo como resultado três funções de demanda para três cenários distintos (população geral da amostra, população distante e população próxima do rio), o modelo observado foi compatível com o estimado nos três cenários, validando assim a pesquisa. A disposição média a pagar estimada da população geral foi de 20,49. O valor econômico total mensal foi de R$ 5.323.609,35 e um valor anual de R$ 63.888.331,22. Neste sentido, tal resultado confirma pelas preferencias reveladas a importância do bem ambiental para população do município de Mossoró, que em parte se dispôs a pagar pela recuperação e preservação do recurso natural. A partir do aprendizado proporcionado pela aplicação das entrevistas foi possível chegar a seguinte conclusão: a decisão de contribuir depende principalmente da renda, a qual atua como fator limitador e decisório, especialmente para a população ribeirinha que teve essa variável explicativa como principal fundamentador da disposição a pagar.

Value, Nature, and Labor: A Defense of Marx

ABSTRACTIn this theoretical intervention, I argue that Karl Marx’s theory of value remains a powerful way to understand nature–society relations under capitalism. I suggest environmentalist critiques often misunderstand Marx’s value theory as a theory that “values” workers over nature. His critical theory is better understood as an explanation of how capitalist value exploits both workers and the environment. My defense of Marxian value theory is articulated through five “theses.” I provide empirical illustration based on recent research into the nitrogen fertilizer industry. (1) Value theory does not refer to all values. (2) Marx’s contention that nature does not contribute to value helps us explain its degradation under capitalism. (3) Marx’s value theory rooted in production allows for a critique of environmental economic valuation schemes (e.g. payments for ecosystem services) which are based on neoclassical value theories rooted in consumption/exchange. (4) Value is abstract social labor, but that means it also abstracts from nature. (5) Capital does value certain parts of nature and that matters. I conclude by advocating a “value theory of nature” in the spirit of Diane Elson’s powerful articulation of Marx’s “value theory of labor.”