Entry-level Performance Research Articles

Pedagogy for Effective Learning of Clinical Skills: An Integrated Laboratory Model

Background and Purpose. The teaching, learning, and assessment of clinical skills is a critical component of entry-level physical therapy education. The intention of this article was to describe a successful model for teaching clinical skills in the context of the patient and client management model across the domains of physical therapist education with emphasis on motor learning principles, experiential learning, and clinical reasoning. Method/Model Description and Evaluation. The model describes a cohesive laboratory learning environment that integrates skills from the clinical science courses that coincide each semester. A laboratory director coordinates with faculty teaching clinical sciences in a given semester to ensure the necessary psychomotor content is included, creates experiential learning opportunities that integrate skills across content areas, and promotes clinical reasoning in the context of the patient and client management model. Success of this model was measured through student outcomes on skills competency tests (SCTs), Clinical Competence Performance Examinations (CCPEs), American Physical Therapy Association (APTA) Clinical Performance Instrument (CPI) benchmarks, and the National Physical Therapy Examination (NPTE). Outcomes. Each student passed SCTs administered during semesters 1–6 given a maximum of 3 trials. Every student passed the CCPE administered at the end of each semester in one of 3 trials except for one student in semester 6. Each student met expectations for performance as measured on the CPI for 4 clinical education experiences including entry-level performance for the final 2terminal experiences. All students were successful on the NPTE. Discussion and Conclusion. Implementation of this model has prepared students for authentic physical therapy practice by promoting integration of curriculum content and has fostered faculty collaboration. While initial student and curricular outcomes have been positive, assessment of the model is ongoing.

Clinical Performance Scores of Internationally Educated Physical Therapists during Clinical Education in a Bridging Programme.

Purpose: We describe the numerical ratings assigned by clinical instructors to the performance of internationally educated physical therapists (IEPTs) during their clinical internships while enrolled in a bridging programme. Method: We conducted a secondary analysis of the quantitative data for IEPT learners attending the Ontario Internationally Educated Physical Therapist Bridging Program using the Canadian Physiotherapy Assessment of Clinical Performance (ACP) tool. We extracted the scores from each IEPT's ACP form at the midterm and final evaluations for two internships and conducted a descriptive analysis. Results: We obtained 318 data sets for 61 IEPTs. By the final point of the second internship, (1) items about communication pertaining to ethical professional relationships, conducting oneself within legal and ethical requirements, and respecting the individuality and autonomy of the client had high mean ratings; (2) most items rated achieved advanced intermediate performance and many indicated entry-level performance; and (3) most IEPTs (84%) either had high scores throughout or improved from lower scores to at least advanced intermediate performance. Conclusions: Items relating to professional conduct and effective communication in professional relationships were relatively high among the IEPTs. By the end of the second internship, most IEPTs in this bridging programme had improved their clinical performance toward or up to the entry-level standard for Canadian physiotherapists.

The Game of Life soccer program: Effect on skills, physical fitness and mobility in persons with intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorder

Soccer is the world's most popular sport. The present authors evaluated the effect of the Game of Life (GOL) soccer initiative on soccer skills, fitness and mobility of adults with intellectual disability (ID) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The programme is comprised of once-weekly sessions. soccer skills, fitness and mobility. Effectiveness was evaluated using within-/between-group analyses (e.g. effect size, ES). Fifty adults with intellectual disability and 19 with ASD (age=31.80±10.11) participated in this study. From pre-test to post-test, the intellectual disability group improved their soccer skills (ES=0.437); physical fitness-the intellectual disability group presented trivial ESs, whereas the ASD group showed moderate-to-large ESs; Mobility-only the ASD group presented a significant improvement (ES=-0.435), and the intellectual disability group presented better ability in most outcomes in pre- and post-tests. The findings indicated differences in entry-level performance and training impact between the two groups. This should be considered when developing training programmes for soccer players.

Physical Therapy Faculty, Clinical Instructors, and Employer Expectations for New DPT Graduates in the Acute Care Setting

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine how the expectations of new graduate physical therapists held by physical therapy faculty (PTF), clinical instructors (CIs), and employers (PTE) compared in the acute care (AC) setting, and determine if graduates are meeting the entry-level expectations of the three stakeholders in acute care. Methods: This mixed method study used Survey Monkey to gather data from participants. Faculty, CIs and PTEs were recruited from CAPTE accredited DPT programs. The current survey used the top 25 characteristics developed by the Delphi study by Gazsi to determine level of agreement of importance among the three participant groups for entry-level performance in acute care. Results: The study had 399 participants. Of the 25 characteristics, 7 were ranked most important by more than 75% of all participant groups combined. Two characteristics – safe and reliable – were consistently ranked highest by all 3 participant groups. Four significant differences among groups were for the characteristics of recognition of red flags, critical thinker, problem solver, and team player. A majority (82.4%) reported that new graduates were meeting expectations. Conclusions: Although the majority of participants reported that new graduates were meeting expectations, the implication of differences in expectations among some of the participants is that these differences should be considered in curricula development.

Relationship Between Narrative Comments and Ratings for Entry-Level Performance on the Clinical Performance Instrument: A Call to Rethink the Clinical Performance Instrument

Introduction. Clinical instructors (CIs) use narratives to qualify anchor points for 18 performance criteria on the Clinical Performance Instrument: Version 2006 (CPI'06) when assessing students' performance during clinical experiences. Directors of Clinical Education (DCE) final narratives and anchor points on the CPI'06 to make sure that the narratives and anchor points are in alignment with each other. CIs and DCEs should have a mutual understanding of the terminology used on the CPI'06. The purpose of this study was to determine the level of agreement (concordance) between raters on whether examples of narratives supported the term, “entry-level performance” (ELP), before and after focus group discussions. Methods. Fifty-four CIs discussed the CPI'06 terminology. A pretest/posttest design was used with the intervention being focus group discussions. Participants compared the definition of ELP with sample narratives and agreed, disagreed, or remained undecided about whether the narratives supported ELP. Statistical tests were analyzed to determine participants' concordance about whether the narratives supported ELP. Their rationale to support their decisions was analyzed using qualitative methodology. Results. Participants' percent of pairwise agreement about whether the narratives supported ELP for testing conditions were highest for safety (65.2–95.3%) and lowest for professional behaviors (34.4–44.0%). Intraclass correlation for multiple raters using ICC(2,1) model indicated interrater reliability for absolute agreement on each test, across five performance criteria, was fair to poor. Qualitative assessment for participants' rationale about decisions indicated inconsistencies in the interpretation of CPI'06 terminology. Discussion and Conclusion. Agreement among professionals about the interpretation of the language used on the CPI'06 to ensure that students graduate with the requisite skills and behaviors is essential. This study indicates that there was a lack of participants' concordance with the interpretation of ELP on the CPI'06.

Determining Predictor Weights in Military Selection: An Application of Dominance Analysis

This article illustrates the use of dominance analysis (DA) to identify the most appropriate set of weights for combining predictor data. We used meta-analytic information on cognitive ability, structured interviews, conscientiousness, and emotional stability to determine relative weights in predicting entry-level job performance and turnover. For job performance, the optimal predictor weights were 51% (cognitive ability), 38% (structured interview), 9% conscientiousness, and 2% (emotional stability). The weights differed considerably for turnover: 48% (structured interview), 27% (emotional stability), 13% (conscientiousness), and 11% (cognitive ability). Using a simulated data set, we showed how the rank-order of applicants can change based on DA and traditional regression analysis. The results suggest that DA has wide applicability for military selection.

Credible and defensible assessment of entry-level clinical competence: Insights from a modified Delphi study

Background: During clinical placements, supervisors repeatedly assess health and medical students for competence. Quality assessment is dependent upon the supervisors having a rich understanding of entry-level standards and an assessment approach that is sufficiently dynamic to accommodate the changing healthcare system. This study aimed to assess whether consensus could be gained by supervisors when assessing the performance of student dietitians during clinical placements and to establish a shared interpretation of entry-level clinical competence. Methods: A modified 3-round Delphi study with a focus group discussion was conducted with eight supervisors. Participants were required to assess the performance of student dietitians from audiovisual recordings of authentic student‒client consultations in aged-care and outpatient settings. Results: Consensus was achieved for 2/11 assessments after one Delphi round, 6/11 assessments after two rounds and 10/11 assessments after the third and final round. During the focus group discussion, the expert panel expressed a shared understanding of entry-level performance, however this was not transferred into a shared assessment of entry-level performance in the Delphi task. Conclusions: Dialogue amongst supervisors leads to a more reliable interpretation of the competency standards. A shared responsibility for assessment, with continuous and open negotiation of meaning, is required to ensure quality assessments of entry- level practice.

Clinician's Commentary on Anderson et al.(1.).

Clinical education is a vital element of training for physical therapy (PT) students, providing opportunities to integrate theory learned in the classroom with the realities of clinical practice as well as for professional socialization and growth.2 However, the role of educator poses challenges for clinicians, and finding adequate capacity for students in clinical settings can be problematic; busy clinical caseloads with increasingly high-acuity patients and a focus on rapid discharge reduce the time clinicians have to spend with students, and in the private sector time taken away from direct patient care can also mean loss of income.2,3 Placement requirements such as formal student evaluations should not deter clinicians from taking on students by making excessive demands on their time; evaluation tools must be user friendly for educators, must measure student performance in a valid and reliable way, and must be applicable to client populations ranging from neonates to the frail elderly. The challenge of developing an appropriate tool for this purpose is not limited to the Canadian context; in Australia, for example, the Assessment of Physiotherapy Practice Instrument (APP) was recently developed to address similar issues to those experienced by Canadian clinicians: lack of time; the need for a competency-based, reliable, and valid tool; and the need for a format that is more universally used and accepted.4(p.5–56) Anderson and colleagues address three important elements of creating a new clinical evaluation tool for Canadian PT students: the rating scale, the format for the new tool, and training in the use of the tool.1 Their article is timely: development of a new Canadian evaluation tool is well underway, and a pilot study has just been completed. While the US-based Physical Therapist Clinical Performance Instrument (PT-CPI)5 has been considered the “gold standard” evaluation tool for students completing clinical placements in most Canadian PT programmes for more than a decade, clinical and academic educators' growing dissatisfaction with the PT-CPI has prompted the development of a new tool more closely aligned with Canadian needs. The three criteria examined by Anderson and colleagues are key areas of tool development. First, the format must be applicable for clinicians in a wide range of clinical settings, from tertiary critical-care centres in urban contexts to rural locations in both Canada and developing nations, where Internet access may be unreliable. Second, the rating scale needs to be clear, easily understood, and informative for both clinicians and students. I have observed that many clinical educators (CEs) are confused about the visual analogue scale (VAS) used in the CPI, ranking the majority of students as “near entry-level” for most competencies, even on junior placements. The scale's two anchors—“novice clinical performance” and “entry-level performance”—provide little guidance for clinicians;6 without adequate cues, CEs may instinctively mark a “passing” student at the far right of the scale, regardless of whether or not that “pass” represents entry-level performance. CEs, particularly those with years of experience, may also have a hard time identifying what basic entry-level performance actually is and may therefore rely to some degree on “gut feel,”7,8 compounding inaccurate or inconsistent performance measurement. Thirdly, training for use of evaluation tools must be easily accessible and address the competing demands on clinicians' time; a newer and possibly more acceptable version of the PT-CPI has not been implemented in Canada, partly because of the lengthy orientation requirement for CEs. One aspect of tool development not addressed by Anderson and colleagues is the student perspective. For students, clinical education courses are high stakes, not only because a failed placement can have serious consequences for their academic progression but because students often perceive clinical placements as “where real learning occurs.” Evaluation tools therefore need to be “educationally informative”9 as well as providing a valid rating of competence, and in most programmes the tool is used for formative feedback during placements as well as for summative feedback at the end. The recent pilot study of the draft of the new Canadian tool included both student and preceptor feedback, and it will be interesting to compare and contrast the differing perspectives on the tool from both clinicians' and students' perspectives.

Entry-level role task performance criteria for the cardiovascular technology domain

Objectives: This study aims to identify entry-level role task performance criteria for the development of competencies in the cardiovascular technology domain. Methods: A task analysis survey instrument was aligned with the CanMEDS 2005 physician competency framework along with other competency documents from the cardiovascular technology domain to collect data on performance criteria using recognized areas of competence for health professionals and to ensure a broad coverage of relevant role task definitions. The research targeted practitioners from 35 tertiary care centers across Saudi Arabia where cardiovascular technology services are utilized. Entry-level performance criteria identified in the survey were then used as inputs for a proposed competency profile for the cardiovascular technology field. Results: A total of 182 email invitations were sent with a response rate of 52% (n=95), generating participants from 17 of the 35 centers targeted. Respondents included 59 Saudi nationals, 29 Filipinos, three South Africans, two Jordanians one American and one missing data entry for nationality. In total, 88 entry-level performance criteria were identified and two areas of deficiency in current cardiovascular technology training and scope of practice were highlighted. Conclusions: Aligned with the purpose of outcomes-based education, this study offers an initial step toward further development of competencies for the cardiovascular technology domain using a well established competency framework, and highlights the need to increase emphasis on training and development of clinical expertise and attitudes toward more patient-centered care.

Physical Therapy Clinical Educatorsʼ Perspectives on Students Achieving Entry-Level Clinical Performance

Background and Purpose. The move to a doctorate in physical therapy education has led to changes in the expectations for entry-level student performance. Members of the Iowa Clinical Education Consortium were interested in how clinical educators in their region would respond to this change in expectations. The purpose of this study was to explore the range of opinions among clinical educators regarding the educational implications of an enhanced definition of entry-level physical therapist performance. Participants. Thirty-four clinicians from the Midwest were invited to participate in regional focus groups. Methods. Each focus group was asked the same 3 questions considering a proposed entry-level definition: what ideal clinical education would look like; what obstacles would need to be overcome; and what support would be needed to achieve ideal clinical education based on the definition. Results. A multi-step process of thematic analysis was used to determine the core themes identified by the participants. These themes related to various academic and administrative issues that need to be addressed to implement the proposed definition in the clinical setting. These issues were diverse in nature and varied across and within practice settings. Discussion and Conclusion. This research contributes to the literature by identifying key concepts and concerns of clinical instructors in relation to implementation of the proposed definition of entry-level performance. This research provides a foundation for further exploration of this issue in terms of clinical educators' expectations of what would be necessary to implement the new definition and the potential impact on their current practices. Key Words: Clinical education, Entry-level education, Qualitative research. BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Entry-level education in physical therapy has changed markedly in the past 20 years, not only in numbers of education programs and degrees awarded, but in curricular content. Eighty- six percent of the accredited physical therapy programs awarded a doctorate level degree in 2007, as compared to only 9.4% in 2000, and zero in 1987.1 Clinical education, or learning in the context of patient care, has always been a significant component in all physical therapist professional education programs, and now accounts for an average of 31.3% of the time spent in a physical therapist programs professional curriculum. The average total length of full-time clinical education has increased from 29.2 weeks in 2001 to 33.6 weeks in 2007. However, there is wide variation in total length of clinical education between programs, with a range of 20 to 55 weeks.1 As the clinical education portion of the curriculum has expanded, more has been asked of the facilities providing clinical education and their clinical instructors (CIs). Coupled with the increased length of clinical education experiences is the expectation that graduates will enter the profession with a higher level of competency, requiring less guidance or supervision when addressing patient problems, and demonstrating competent time-management skills.2'3 For physical therapist education programs to be accredited by the Commission on Accreditation of Physical Therapist Education (CAPTE), they must meet stringent evaluative criteria. The criteria state that schools must document that their clinical education experiences encompass: (a) management of patients/clients representative of those commonly seen in practice across the lifespan and the continuum of care, (b) practice in settings representative of those in which physical therapy is commonly practiced, (c) interaction with physical therapist role models whose practice is consistent with the program's philosophy of practice, (d) opportunities for involvement in interdisciplinary care; and (e) other experiences that lead to the achievement of expected student outcomes.4 The first goal of the Education Strategic Plan from the American Physical Therapy Association (APTA) emphasizes the importance that the profession has placed on quality clinical education. …

Indexing Response to Intervention

In this study, response to intervention and stability of reading performance of 41 kindergarten children identified as at risk of reading difficulty were evaluated from kindergarten through third grade. All students were assessed in the fall of each academic year to evaluate need for intervention, and students who fell below the 30th percentile on criterion measures received small-group supplemental intervention. Measures included a combination of commercial normative referenced measures and specific skill and construct measures to assess growth or change in reading risk status relative to 30th percentile benchmarks. Results indicated that consistent with the findings of prior research involving students with comparable entry-level performance, the majority of children identified as at risk in the beginning of kindergarten responded early and positively to intervention. On average, absolute performance levels at the end of kindergarten positioned students for trajectories of later reading performance that exceeded the 50th percentile on the majority of measures. Moreover, changes in risk status that occurred early were generally sustained over time. Only oral reading fluency performance failed to exceed the 30th percentile for the majority of students.

Attributes of Effective and Efficient Kindergarten Reading Intervention

A randomized experimental design with three levels of intervention was used to compare the effects of beginning reading interventions on early phonemic, decoding, and spelling outcomes of 96 kindergartners identified as at risk for reading difficulty. The three instructional interventions varied systematically along two dimensions--time and design of instruction specificity--and consisted of (a) 30 min with high design specificity (30/H), (b) 15 min with high design specificity plus 15 min of non-code-based instruction (15/H+15), and (c) a commercial comparison condition that reflected 30 min of moderate design specificity instruction (30/M). With the exception of the second 15 min of the 15/H+15 condition, all instruction focused on phonemic, alphabetic, and orthographic skills and strategies. Students were randomly assigned to one of the three interventions and received 108 thirty-minute sessions of small-group instruction as a supplement to their typical half-day kindergarten experience. Planned comparisons indicated findings of statistical and practical significance that varied according to measure and students' entry-level performance. The results are discussed in terms of the pedagogical precision needed to design and provide effective and efficient instruction for students who are most at risk.

Clinical Instructors’ Perceptions of Behaviors That Comprise Entry-Level Clinical Performance in Physical Therapist Students: A Qualitative Study

The purpose of this study was to qualitatively explore clinical instructors' (CIs) perceptions of students' behaviors that comprise entry-level clinical performance, as well as how those perceptions were integrated into their decision making. The participants were 21 physical therapists who were CIs for physical therapist students. Using a grounded theory approach, we conducted interviews, asking the question, "What is it about students' performance that makes you see them as entry-level therapists?" We determined common themes among the interviews and developed a schema to explain the decision-making process. Participants identified 7 attributes that, when demonstrated to a sufficient degree, illustrated to them students' ability to practice at the entry level. Those attributes were knowledge, clinical skills, safety, clinical decision making, self-directed learning, interpersonal communication, and professional demeanor. Participants viewed these attributes in concert to form a subjective "gut feeling" that a student demonstrated entry-level performance. A final theme emerged suggesting a definition of entry-level performance as "mentored independence." Participants reported evaluating students' performance based on attributes similar to those suggested by the American Physical Therapy Association's Physical Therapist Clinical Performance Instrument and previous research. However, subjectivity also was involved in their decision about whether students were able to practice at the entry level. Participants also concluded that entry-level students need not be independent in all clinical situations.

New Advantis™ raises entry-level performance, reduces cost-per-placement

New Advantis™ raises entry-level performance, reduces cost-per-placement

Four-Year Prospective Study of Military Trainees Returned to Duty following a Mental Health Evaluation

The purpose of the study was to determine the long-term outcome for military trainees referred for a mental health evaluation during basic training. Participants were 261 Air Force basic trainees seen for a mental health evaluation during January through October 1997 and returned to duty. Frequency and type of discharge from the military were documented for participants during a 4-year follow-up period. The results showed that two-thirds of the study sample failed to complete their obligated tour of duty. Most discharges occurred within a 100-day period from the time of the evaluation. Common discharge types were physical condition interfering with performance of duty, entry-level performance and conduct, fraudulent entry, and character or behavior disorder. Implications of the findings for mental health providers working in a military training environment are discussed.

Rater Discrimination Using the Visual Analog Scale of the Physical Therapist Clinical Performance Instrument

Background and Purpose. A central issue surrounding the use of a visual analog scale (VAS) of the Physical Therapist Clinical Performance Instrument (CPI) is the level of measurement represented by the method. An often-made assumption is that the VAS is an interval-level measure of the construct of interest. In order for the scale to he valid and for this assumption to be supported, raters must demonstrate the ability to discriminate among 100 levels of student performance. The purpose of this study was to use a measurement model to investigate the validity of the VAS of the CPI when used by clinical instructors to evaluate student performance. Subjects. Final CPI raw scores were collected from 182 subjects from 3 different physical therapist education programs across 4 full-time clinical experiences. Methods. Visual analog scale raw scores for each item were measured (in millimeters) along with rater use of the With Distinction Box. An analysis using the Rasch Measurement Model was performed on the collected data. Step calibration values and average measure values provided by the model were used to analyze rater use of the VAS. Results. A valid rating scale was achieved when the VAS was considered to be a 6-level ordinal scale. Following the collapse of response categories, the 6 groupings of VAS raiu scores were as follows: 0-30 mm=l, 31-50 mm=2, 51-70 mm=3, 71-90 mm=4, 91-100 mm=5, and 100 mm + With Distinction Box=6. Discussion and Conclusion. The inability of clinical instructors to discriminate among 100 levels of student is most likely contributing to the invalid scale. Key Words: Clinical Performance Instrument, Rasch Measurement Model, Rater discrimination, Visual analog scale. INTRODUCTION The Physical Therapist Clinical Performance Instrument (CPI) was recently introduced for use in the assessment of physical therapist students during clinical fieldwork assignments.1 The CPI is a 24-item assessment tool that is believed to describe all essential aspects of professional practice of a physical therapist clinician performing at entry level. Individual competency items are rated by placing a mark on the given 100-mm visual analog scale (VAS), with novice clinical performance to entry-level performance anchoring the ends of the scale. A central issue surrounding the use of a VAS is the level of measurement represented by the method.2'6 An often-made assumption is that the VAS represents an interval-level measure of the construct of interest. Because an investigator applies a ruler to the 100-mm scale to extract a score, a conceptual leap to assuming interval-level measurement is often made/' If the construct of interest is length, the VAS represents a linear scale. However, when the VAS is utilized to assess another construct, such as clinical performance, the VAS is not necessarily assessing the construct at an interval level. Subsequently, research using the VAS of the CPI as an interval-level measure may lead to invalid inferences from the data. Psychometric investigation is required to support the use of the VAS as an interval-level measurement. The CPI has not been subjected to such a study. Related to the interval-level assumption of the VAS is the capacity for discrimination of the rater. If a pencil or pen mark is 1 mm wide, there are approximately 100 different levels of clinical the rater must distinguish among when using the VAS. The validity of the WS as an interval measure is based on the premise that a higher raw score represents a numerically defined increase in the construct of interest. Thus, an 80-mm mark on the WS for item 1 (safety) is assumed to represent twice as much ability related to safety as a 40-mm mark. The assumption is that the rater is able to distinguish among up to 100 distinct levels of response categories, or stimuli. The ability of individuals to distinguish among multiple levels of response categories, or stimuli, has been investigated in the psychological literature in the area of absolute judgment. …

Employers’ Perceptions of The Skills, Qualities and Backgrounds Important For Entry-Level Dietitians

A competitive job market necessitates that entry-level registered dietitians (RD) possess skills and abilities required by employers. A survey of 422 employers in Montana, Colorado, North Dakota, South Dakota and Wyoming was conducted to determine what qualifications and personal qualities were important to employers when hiring an entry-level RD. Survey questions used the ADA entry-level performance requirements. The survey was developed using similar instruments and was pilot-tested with local employers of dietitians. Results from 175 surveys (41%) showed the most important entry-level professional skills were oral and written communication, knowledge of ethics and standards of practice, provision of nutrition care and expertise in nutrition education and counseling. Employers also valued personal qualities of flexibility, ability to deal with conflict, positive attitude, self motivation, interest in the mission of the organization, teamwork, dependability, ability to cope with pressure and favorable interaction with the public. This information can be used by dietetic programs to better prepare students for entry-level jobs. This project was hindered by limited dietitian-employer listings available. In the future, a database of all employers of dietitians should be developed through a combined effort with ADA, practice groups and state and local dietetic associations.

The Virtual Environment Performance Assessment Battery (VEPAB):Development and Evaluation

The Virtual Environment Performance Assessment Battery (VEPAB) is a set of tasks developed to support research on training applications of virtual environment (VE) technology. VEPAB measures human performance on vision, locomotion, tracking, object manipulation, and reaction time tasks performed in three-dimensional, interactive VEs. It can be used to provide a general orientation for interacting in VEs and to determine both entry level performance and skill acquisition of users. In addition, VEPAB allows comparison of task performance, side effects and aftereffects, and subjective reactions across different VE systems. By providing benchmarks of human performance, VEPAB can promote continuity in training research involving different technologies, separate research facilities, and dissimilar subject populations. This paper describes the development of VEPAB and summarizes the results of two experiments, one to test the sensitivity of the tasks to differences between input control devices and the other to examine practice effects.

Key-finding, Fingering, and Timing in Piano Performance of Children

This study was an investigation of timing accuracy and tempo of performance in entry-level piano performance of children. Female and male subjects, 7, 9 and 11 years of age, using the right or left hand, performed three tasks. They performed the durational rhythm of a folksong by playing (1) with one finger on one key; (2) with one finger on five keys; and (3) with five fingers on five keys. Significant main effects for motor task, age, and gender were found for timing accuracy and tempo. Some significant interaction effects also resulted, especially for tempo. In general, performance was more inaccurate and slower for more complex tasks, for younger subjects, and for male subjects. Left-handed performance of the most complex task was more inaccurate and slower. Implications for piano pedagogy and theory of motor learning were considered.

Teaching Experience and Training in the Sports Skill Analysis Process

This study investigated the effects of teaching experience and instruction on visual retention and knowledge of selected sports skills. Prior to and after 30 hours of instruction, 31 experienced teachers and 29 undergraduates were administered the Utah Skills Analysis Test (USKAT) to assess both visual retention of performance and knowledge of correct motor patterns. Before instruction, teachers performed slightly better than undergraduates on the perceptual portion of USKAT, whereas there were no significant differences on the knowledge portion. A repeated measures analysis indicated significant treatment effects across groups on both perceptual and knowledge measures, with undergraduates exhibiting greater pretest to posttest gains than teachers on both dependent variables. A one-way ANOVA conducted on gain score data of subjects blocked into high, medium, and low functional performance levels based upon pretreatment scores revealed significant differences in perceptual performance between the blocks. It was concluded that (a) both teachers and undergraduates demonstrated the ability to improve performance in qualitative skills analysis, (b) undergraduates appear more responsive to specific instructional protocol than experienced teachers, and (c) entry level performance may influence the impact of the protocol on sport skill analysis performance.