Entire Slope Research Articles

Seismic stratigraphy, structure and tectonic evolution of the Levantine Basin, offshore Israel

Abstract Multi-channel seismic reflection data and borehole information were used to study the structure and stratigraphy of the Levantine basin, offshore Israel. A new, 2D seismic survey that covers the southeastern Mediterranean Sea from the Israeli coast to the Eratosthenes Seamount shows the entire Phanerozoic sedimentary fill down to a depth of 14–16 km. The basin-fill is subdivided into six seismo-stratigraphic units interpreted as low-order, major depositional cycles (supersequences A-F). Correlation and mapping of these units allowed an investigation of the geological history of the basin and the analysis of two important tectonic phases: Neotethyan rifting, and Syrian Arc inversion and contraction. The Neotethyan rifting phase is recorded by the strata of supersequences A and B. Faulting took place during the Anisian (Mid-Triassic), continued through the Liassic and ceased during the Mid-Jurassic. The basin opened in a NW-SE direction, between the Eratosthenes Seamount and the Levant margin of the Arabian Massif, at an angle of about 30° to the present-day shoreline. No indications for sea-floor spreading were found in the present study. Late Triassic to Liassic volcanic rocks of assumed intraplate origin accumulated in the northeastern part of the basin. It is hypothesized that the basin originated as an intracontinental rift associated with the nucleation of an oceanic spreading centre, but reached only an early magmatic phase. An inversion and contraction phase, associated with closing of the Neotethyan ocean system, is recorded by supersequences C and D. The contractional structures of the Syrian Arc extend in a wide and elevated fold belt along the eastern edge of the deep-marine basin. These structures were formed by the inversion of pre-existing normal faults. The folding occurred in several pulses starting in the Senonian and ending in the Miocene. The western limit of the main fold belt, located 50–70 km west of the coastline, is defined by a transition in crustal properties. Supersequences E and F record the Late Cenozoic history of the basin. A Messinian, evaporitic basin was limited to the east by the elevated and uplifted Syrian Arc fold belt composed of older, Oligocene to Mid-Miocene strata. During highstand episodes, the Messinian evaporites were deposited on the entire slope and within canyons incised into the shelf. High sedimentation rates of Nilotic and locally derived sediments during the Plio-Pleistocene resulted in the development of extensive submarine deltas and basinward progradation of the Levant shelf break.

Inorganic nitrogen source utilization byFagus crenata on different soil types

The nitrogen source utilization by Fagus crenata distributed on soils with different forms of inorganic nitrogen in a cool-temperate deciduous forest in central Japan was determined by measuring foliar δ15N. Two soil habitat types along a slope were delineated based on nitrogen transformation patterns, i.e., soils with high net nitrification rates and with no or low net nitrification, respectively. Despite differences in soil types, the study species, F. crenata, was distributed along the entire slope. The foliar δ15N value of F. crenata from the lower slope area was significantly lower than that from the upper slope. Given the finding of a previous study that the δ15N of NO3− was lower than that of NH4+, our results indicate that reliance on NO3− as a nitrogen source was greater in the lower slope area than in the upper slope area. Differences in the values of foliar δ15N were about 1‰, which is far less than the 10‰ δ15N value of soil inorganic N reported in the previous study. This discrepancy might suggest that the study species utilized NO3− even in the upper site where net nitrification had not been detected. Measurements of nitrate reductase activity, an index of NO3− uptake, also supported this interpretation. Nitrate reduction occurred in leaves and roots at both the lower and the upper sites. Thus, the study species may be able to use NO3− even in soils with no net nitrification, a factor that could allow the distribution of F. crenata along the entire length of the slope.

Slope failure in underconsolidated soft soils during the development of a port in Tianjin, China. Part 2: Analytical study

This paper presents the analytical study of a major landslide that occurred in a newly dredged slope during port development in the city of Tianjin, northern China. The slope comprised mainly underconsolidated and submerged soft soils. The landslide consisted of a number of individual slides that occurred sequentially and extended retrogressively and laterally into the reclaimed land. The paper proposes a slope stability assessment methodology for the examination of such slope failures, with retrogressive and lateral extension into reclaimed land. Both the total and the effective stress approaches are adopted in the slope stability assessment. Eight different sets of soil shear strength parameters are used in the assessment. They were determined by using different methods in the laboratory and in the field or by back analysis. The assessment results indicate that the total stress approach, together with undrained vane strength values, gives the best result in the stability assessment of the original dredged slope and the subsequent failed slopes. The paper further examines the factors that might have caused or triggered the occurrence of the landslide. Backfilling of a thick general soil layer and a sand cushion for vacuum preloading of the hydraulic fill in the reclaimed land might have rendered the entire slope marginally stable. Lowering of the tidal level might also have had an effect in triggering the landslide. The engineering approach and results presented in this study could be useful in the design and construction of dredged slopes in underconsolidated soft soils.Key words: land reclamation, dredge excavation, slope stability assessment, landslide investigation, marine mud, case studies.

Landslide hazard in the Nebrodi Mountains (Northeastern Sicily)

The eastern sector of the Nebrodi Mountains (NE Sicily), a part of the Apenninic-Maghrebian orogenic chain, is characterized by an high landslide hazard. The village of S. Domenica Vittoria, which lies in the area, has been particularly affected by various landslide phenomena, with resulting damage to buildings and infrastructure. The rocks outcropping in the area belong to the Cretaceous Monte Soro Flysch; they consist of an alternation of argillaceous and calcareous beds at the base and argillaceous and quartzarenitic beds at the top. The lithotechnical characteristics of the formation and the steepness of the slopes in the area lead to an elevated instability, as testified by the widespread occurrence of sub-vertical arcuate cliffs (landslide scarps) and sub-horizontal areas (landslide terraces), typical of a landslide-controlled morphology. From a kinematics point of view, the observed phenomena can be referred to multiple rotational slides, flows, and complex landslides, often with a retrogressive development and enlargement. Triggering causes lie principally in the intense rainfalls that determine the decay of the geomechanical properties of the terrain and supply discontinuos groundwater circulation that is evident in seasonal springs. Human activity, such as the construction of roads and buildings on steep slopes and dispersal of water from supply systems and sewers has a significant impact as well. Due to the instability of the area, expansion of the village, which is already limited by the morphological conditions, is made difficult by the high hazard level, especially in the areas at higher elevations, where the principal landslide scarps are located, and even more on the rims of the scarps. Considering the high hazard level, S. Domenica Vittoria has been inserted by the National Geological Service among the sites in Sicily to be monitored by means of a GPS network. The survey carried out along the entire slope hosting the village has furnished the base for geological and geomorphological knowledge needed for the planning of the network, to identify the areas at landslide risk, where parts of the village lie, including the areas of expansion of the village, the main roads, and a portion of the Favoscuro river bed.

Role of internal waves in the generation of nepheloid layers on the northwestern Alboran slope: Implications for continental margin shaping

The role of internal waves in the sediment dynamics of the northwestern Alboran continental slope was investigated in a selected area around the Guadiaro submarine canyon. Nepheloid layer distribution was identified using closely spaced CTD/transmissometer profiles collected during two hydrographic surveys. A well‐defined pattern of suspended sediment distribution consisting of surface, intermediate, and near‐bottom nepheloid layers was found. Intermediate and bottom nepheloid layers were always observed within the canyon and on the adjacent continental slope, spanning mainly from 200 to 500 m depth. In addition, a current meter with a turbidimeter was deployed in the lower section of the Guadiaro Canyon at 600 m depth, 25 meters above the seafloor. Time series analysis indicated that the currents, temperature, and turbidity within the canyon fluctuate mainly at semidiurnal tidal frequencies, suggesting the presence of semidiurnal internal tides affecting the near‐bottom suspended sediment concentration along the canyon axis. High‐resolution bathymetry from the study area was used to evaluate the internal wave reflection conditions at semidiurnal tidal frequency for the entire continental slope region. Critical slope conditions were reached on the upper continental slope and along the canyon axis, coinciding with the region in which nepheloid layers were observed. This region also coincides with a zone of erosion on the upper continental slope of the study area previously identified by Hernández‐Molina [1993]. These results indicate that the generation of intermediate and bottom nepheloid layers, as well as the erosion and shaping of the northwestern Alborán continental slope, may result from the interaction of internal waves and the seafloor morphology.

Late Quaternary sedimentation in the Ulleung Interplain Gap, East Sea (Korea)

The Ulleung Interplain Gap (UIG) is a deep (2300–2700 m) passage which has served as a conduit for deep-water circulation between the Ulleung and Japan basins. A detailed analysis of Chirp (2–7 kHz) subbottom profiles (ca. 6270 line-km) and nine sediment cores (8.6–11.4 m long) together with age data of tephra layers and four AMS 14C from the UIG and the adjacent areas reveals complex sedimentation caused by an interaction between bottom currents and mass flows during the last- and post-glacial periods. From high-resolution subbottom data, rock basement, slide/slump/rock-fall deposits, mass-flow chutes/channels, mass-flow deposits, bottom-current deposits, and a large-scale bottom-current channel system are recognized. Core sediments consist of various deposits of turbidites, muddy contourites, manganiferous contourites, and pelagic/hemipelagic sediments. Based on vertical distribution of sedimentary facies together with a chronostratigraphic framework, core sediments can be divided into Units I (<∼15 ka) and II (>∼15 ka). The extensive mass-flow deposits with slope failures on the entire slopes of topographic highs around the UIG and the dominant turbidites in Unit II (>∼15 ka) suggest that a relatively large amount of sediment was delivered into the UIG by frequent mass flows (recurrence intervals of ca. 250–500 years in the upper Unit II) during the last-glacial period. Erosion or hampered sedimentation by bottom currents is indicated by the truncated reflectors of channel walls and muddy/manganiferous contourites in the Ulleung Interplain Channel (UIC) along the UIG. Interbedded turbidites in the UIC floor reflect that some large-scale mass flows intermittently entered into the UIC. The UIC has an asymmetric channel-flank geometry. The southeastern flank shows a gentle, wide mound morphology of mass-flow deposits derived from large-scale slope failures on the slopes of the Oki Bank, reflecting a dominance of downslope gravitational processes over alongslope bottom currents. In contrast, the northwestern flank is characterized by a narrow, steep geometry of mass-flow deposits, where a relatively small amount of sediment derived from the slopes of the South Korea Plateau could not overcome bottom-current activity. The dominant muddy and manganiferous contourites with rare turbidites in Unit I (<∼15 ka) reflect intensified bottom currents and infrequent slope failures (recurrence intervals of ca. 1700–5000 years) during the post-glacial period. These conditions facilitated the formation of a thin, elongate mound of bottom-current drifts overlying mass-flow deposits on the southeastern UIC flank, and sustained erosion or hampered sedimentation in the UIC.

Tsunamigenic slope failure along the Middle America Trench in two tectonic settings

Slope failure along the Costa Rica convergent margin commonly results from steepening of the continental slope above underthrust relief on the subducting plate. The 50-km-wide prehistoric Nicoya Slump was a big event that was followed by small slides from its headwall. Estimated maximum wave height above the slide is 27 m. The headwall occurs along a tectonized and unstable zone that extends northwest. An expected great earthquake in the adjacent Nicoya seismic gap could trigger future tsunamigenic landslides along this zone. The central Nicaragua slope, where the 1992 tsunamigenic earthquake occurred, has failed from steepening by tectonic erosion and perhaps subducting relief. The steep middle slope displays several large slide scars, each of which had the potential to generate a 6–7-m-high wave. A relation between the youngest slide and the 1992 earthquake is uncertain. Principal causes of landslides off Middle America were tectonic steepening and elevated fluid pressure. A mid-slope tectonized zone off Costa Rica allowed detachment of a huge slump involving the entire lower slope to the plate boundary. It may pose a hazard during rupture of the Nicoya locked zone.

Forest structure and tree species distribution in relation to topography‐mediated heterogeneity of soil nitrogen and light at the forest floor

We investigated the patterns of soil nitrogen (N) and forest floor light availability, forest structure and tree species distribution along a topographic gradient on a 200‐m mountain slope in a cool‐temperate deciduous broad‐leaved forest in Japan. Rates of soil N mineralization and nitrification decreased from lower to upper slope positions, revealing that N availability decreased up the slope. Maximum tree height and above‐ground biomass were greater on the lower than the upper parts of the slope. Canopy openness, an index of light availability at the forest floor, increased up the slope. Tree species could be placed into three groups according to their distribution patterns on the slope. ‘Ridge’ and ‘valley’ species were distributed on the upper and lower parts of the slope, respectively, whereas ‘uniform’ species were distributed over the entire slope. Topography‐mediated resource gradients of soil N and light may be important determinants of species distribution patterns and forest regeneration, and the results of this study imply that the determinants of the regeneration process differ between the lower and upper parts of a slope. The former may be relatively light limited and the latter may be soil N limited. Valley species may have a greater ability to compete for light, whereas ridge species have a greater ability to compete for soil N. The broad distribution of uniform species probably reflects an ability to effectively compete for both light and soil N.

Bending-related faulting and mantle serpentinization at the Middle America trench.

The dehydration of subducting oceanic crust and upper mantle has been inferred both to promote the partial melting leading to arc magmatism and to induce intraslab intermediate-depth earthquakes, at depths of 50-300 km. Yet there is still no consensus about how slab hydration occurs or where and how much chemically bound water is stored within the crust and mantle of the incoming plate. Here we document that bending-related faulting of the incoming plate at the Middle America trench creates a pervasive tectonic fabric that cuts across the crust, penetrating deep into the mantle. Faulting is active across the entire ocean trench slope, promoting hydration of the cold crust and upper mantle surrounding these deep active faults. The along-strike length and depth of penetration of these faults are also similar to the dimensions of the rupture area of intermediate-depth earthquakes.

Static and dynamic simulation of a 700-m high rock slope in western Norway

Static and dynamic rock slope stability analyses were performed using a numerical discontinuum modelling technique for a 700-m high rock slope in western Norway. The rock slope has been investigated by the Geological Survey of Norway (NGU), which has been carrying out rock slide studies for the county Møre and Romsdal in western Norway. The purpose of numerical modelling was to estimate the volume of the rock mass that could potentially slide under static and dynamic forces. This estimation was required to assess the run-up heights (tsunami) in a fjord that could potentially be caused by the rockslide. Three cases have been simulated for predicting the behaviour of the rock slope. First, an initial static loading is applied in the numerical model to simulate the prevailing rock mass conditions at the site. Second, saturated and weathered joint conditions are modelled by reducing the residual friction angle along the discontinuities of the rock mass. In doing so, the model simulates the effect of degradation of discontinuities in the rock slope. Third, a dynamic loading, based on peak ground accelerations expected in the area, is applied to simulate dynamic earthquake conditions. These numerical studies have provided some useful insights into the deformation mechanisms in the rock slope. Both sliding and rotation of blocks start to occur once the residual friction angle along the discontinuities is reduced and when the region is shaken by a strong earthquake. The results indicate that, due to variations in the inclination of discontinuities, the entire slope does not become unstable and that down-slope sliding and rotation of blocks occur mainly on the top layers of the slope. Within the range of parameter values considered for this study, it is unlikely that the whole rock slope can be destabilised. The study provides an illustration of how the geo-mechanical properties of a rock mass can be integrated in a discontinuum rock slope model, which is used for predicting the behaviour of the slope under existing environmental and earthquake conditions. This model has helped not only to better understand the dynamics of the rockslide but also to estimate the potential rock volume that can become unstable when subjected to static and dynamic loads.

Quantitative bathymetric analyses of selected deepwater siliciclastic margins: receiving basin configurations for deepwater fan systems

Comparative bathymetric analyses of four siliciclastic continental margins reveal important distinguishing characteristics in deepwater receiving basin configurations. These characteristics have potential impact on deepwater sedimentation patterns and associated fan development. Present-day bathymetry was analysed quantitatively, using advanced software and digital bathymetry data. Various physical attributes of dip, basin geometry, and accommodation were quantified and mapped in 3D. Results show significant differences in receiving basin configurations between salt-based and shale-based continental margins in the Gulf of Mexico, Angola, Nigeria, and NW Borneo, especially in the type, amount, and distribution of accommodation. Salt-based systems have more ponded accommodation than shale-based systems; however, all the margins have a relatively small percentage of ponded to total accommodation. Two exceptions to this are the central portion of the Northwest Gulf of Mexico where ponded accommodation constitutes 55% of the total accommodation and the Kwanza Basin of Offshore Angola with 39% ponded accommodation. Shale-based systems may be more prone to bypass on the upper to mid slope than salt-based systems. Evidence for this is found in the linear grade trend analyses where large below-grade areas (sinks) are pervasive on the upper and mid slope of salt-based systems for deepwater sediment to accumulate, while shale-based systems show extensive above-grade highs across the entire slope. Ponded accommodation trends and drainage analyses also demonstrate that shale-based systems are more susceptible to extensive bypass than salt-based systems. The tectonically active margin of NW Borneo has steeper slope profiles than the passive margins, with areally small ponded accommodation largely restricted between active toe-thrusts on the lower slope and locally distributed on the shelf. These and other quantitative analyses suggest that the type of substrate and overall tectonic setting are important factors to consider for receiving basin configuration and its potential impact on deepwater sedimentation patterns.

Spatial distribution of surface conditions and runoff generation in small arid watersheds, Zin Valley Badlands, Israel

High rill density may be regarded as indicative of frequent and integrated runoff along a drainage network. However, field observations of soil development and rill geometry in small, first-order catchments (0.1 to 1 ha) of the Zin Valley Badlands, northern Negev, Israel, suggest a pattern of partial area contribution and frequent flow discontinuities along hillslopes and channels. Changing soil properties, associated with an increase of slope angle and slope length, appear to be responsible for high infiltration on the slopes, leading to nonuniform runoff generation within small drainage basins. Runoff observation, sprinkling tests, and soil analysis along ridges and sideslopes were carried out to test this hypothesis. The results confirmed that infiltration capacity on the sideslopes is significantly higher than on the ridges. Under current rainfall conditions, only extreme rainfall intensities are sufficient to generate runoff along entire slopes. The discontinuous nature of most runoff events causes erosion on ridges and deposition on slopes, which enhances soil development on the valley sideslopes, creating a positive feedback on infiltration rate and depth. This demonstrates that the links between within-storm rainfall conditions and spatial distribution of soil characteristics have to be incorporated into our understanding of landscape development in badlands.

Using Rare‐Earth Oxide Tracers for Studying Soil Erosion Dynamics

Spatially averaged soil erosion data provide little information on soil erosion dynamics. Dynamically varied, spatially distributed erosion data are needed to better understand erosion processes and thoroughly evaluate process‐based erosion prediction models. The objectives of this study are to examine the feasibility of direct mixing rare‐earth element (REE) oxides with soil materials to trace soil erosion at a plot scale and to explore further the potential of using this technique to study soil erosion dynamics. Five REE oxide powders were mixed with a Camden silt soil (fine, silty, mixed, mesic Typic Hapludalt) at five slope positions. Six rainstorms were applied to a 4 by 4 m soil bed at a 10% slope. Runoff was collected during the rains and surface soil was sampled after each rain. All samples were extracted for REE with a quick acid‐leaching method and extracts were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS). Mean error of REE‐derived sediment discharge relative to measured total across six rainstorms was 14.5%. Our results demonstrate that the REE‐tracing technique is feasible and sound, being capable of producing both spatially and temporally distributed erosion data. Results indicate that the most severe erosion occurred in the upper middle section of a uniform slope, and total sediment delivery from each segment was positively related to amounts of sediment deposition on the entire slope from that segment. This technique has the potential to bring new perspectives to soil erosion research.

Variability of the Seasonally Integrated Normalized Difference Vegetation Index Across the North Slope of Alaska in the 1990s

The interannual variability and trend of above-ground photosynthetic activity of Arctic tundra vegetation in the 1990s is examined for the north slope region of Alaska, based on the seasonally integrated normalized difference vegetation index (SINDVI) derived from local area coverage (LAC) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) data. Smaller SINDVI values occurred during the three years (1992-1994) following the volcanic eruption of Mt Pinatubo. Even after implementing corrections for this stratospheric aerosol effect and adjusting for changes in radiometric calibration coefficients, an apparent increasing trend of SINDVI in the 1990s is evident for the entire north slope. The most pronounced increase was observed for the foothills physiographical province.

High-magnitude landslide events on a limestone-scarp in central Germany: morphometric characteristics and climatic controls

There are both internal and external controlling factors leading to slope instability and susceptibility to mass movement processes. This paper explores which external climatic variables of different temporal scales influence the occurrence of high-magnitude landslide events. The investigations were focused on the Wellenkalk-cuesta scarp in the Thuringia Basin (Thüringer Becken) in central Germany. The cuesta scarp is composed of a densely jointed limestone caprock (Wellenkalk), and impermeable mudstones and marls of the Upper Bunter Sandstone (Röt) in the lower part of the slope. Mass movements are a typical feature of the Wellenkalk-scarp. The entire scarp slope length (∼1000 km) has been systematically mapped and investigated in a comprehensive research project in order to provide reliable information on the spatial distribution and control of the mass movements. More than 20% of the scarp slope has been influenced by various types of Holocene mass movements with strong differences in spatial frequencies. Sixteen high-magnitude landslides (Sturzfließungen) were identified by field inspection and mapping of slope geomorphology. Information on locations, morphometric characteristics, stratigraphic positions and rainfall-related attributes of the scarp slopes affected by the large landslides is presented. Mean annual rainfall amounts decrease from more than 800 mm in the western part of the basin to less than 550 mm in the east. Meteorological statistics on the spatial distribution of heavy rainfall intensities of different durations and return periods show that greatest precipitation intensities in short events (1 h) are reached at the western margin. Differences in rainfall intensities between the western and eastern parts decrease with increasing duration of the events. Where available, event-related meteorological information was collected. The spatial distribution of the landslides is most closely mirrored in the pattern of mean annual precipitation, though this variable is generally not thought to be a satisfactory or reliable climatic controlling factor. No landslides occur below a threshold value of ∼700 mm. The empirical data show that some general level of average perennial water input into the slope system seems to be of decisive importance for the occurrence of high-magnitude mass movements. Only when the precondition of a more general hydrological disposition is fulfilled, a direct triggering of high-magnitude mass movements by a short-time intensive rainfall period or event can become effective.

Geological features and landslide mechanisms of an unstable coastal slope (Petacciato, Italy)

On the basis of geological and geomorphological surveys, landslide phenomena are analysed on a slope along a stretch of the Adriatic coast, near Petacciato (Molise, Italy).Locally, a blue clay sequence of Pleistocene outcrops, stratified with silty-sandy layers; bedding dips 3–8°NE and the slope has a similar attitude. This sequence evolves upwards to sands and conglomerates, with thickness of up to 40 m, on which the built-up area is located.Several episodes of landslide reactivation occurred in the past century, involving the zone between the built-up area and the sea, along a coastal slope of over 2000 m long and 200 m high. Important roads and railway lines have been heavily damaged as well as the town itself.The typology of the movement is a rotational–translational slide; the displacement reaches tens of centimetres at each reactivation episode along the entire coastal slope, extending well beyond the shore line.Detailed studies already exists, but different mechanism failures have been proposed to explain the landslide phenomena. In this study, a new failure mechanism is proposed, (sudden spreading of Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B., 1948. Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice. Wiley and Sons New York) and analytical approaches have been adopted to evaluate the slope stability, based on the geotechnical and monitoring data and the geometrical and geological features of the slope.

Chirp (2–7-kHz) echo characters of the South Korea Plateau, East Sea: styles of mass movement and sediment gravity flow

The South Korea Plateau is a complex of ridges, seamount chains, troughs and a basin. Detailed analysis of 12 019 line-km Chirp (2–7-kHz) subbottom profiles from the South Korea Plateau and the eastern continental slope of Korea reveals a distinctive zonal distribution of echo types depending systematically on seafloor morphology. Pelagites/hemipelagites (type I-2) and basement highs (type III-1) prevail on the ridge summits, seamount chains and the upper to middle part of the eastern continental slope of Korea, and are commonly bounded downslope by creeps (type III-3) and slides/slumps (type IV-1) that occur extensively over the entire slope areas of the ridges, seamount chains and eastern continental slope. The mass-movement deposits change downslope to debrites and turbidites (types II, III-2, IV-2 and IV-3) in the troughs and Onnuri Basin, suggesting successive downslope evolution from slide and slump to debris flow and turbidity current. The voluminous creeps, slides and slumps over the entire slope areas of the plateau and eastern continental slope, deeper than 300 m in water depth, were most likely generated by frequent seismic shakings.

A flow slide in central Italy

The paper describes a slope failure in granular colluvium, together with its geomorphological, seismic and geotechnical setting. The predictions from conventional geotechnical slope stability analyses, taking into account topography, pore pressure and seismic effects, are compared with the observed pattern of instability. It is concluded that the failure was a flow slide and resulted from a combination of factors. Geotechnical limit equilibrium stability analyses of entire slopes are rarely able to predict the smaller-scale initiation events leading to flow slides, because these are controlled by local topography, ground and groundwater conditions. Nor are they able to predict the speed and run-out of such slides.

How are coral populations structured by light? Marine light regimes and the distribution of Madracis

We studied the relation of light with coral colony morphology and coral distribution over a 5 to 50 m reef slope. We describe the characteristics of 6 species of the genus Madracis in relation to the light (photosynthetically active radiation (PAR): 400 to 700 nm) colonies receive at a small spatial scale (1 to 10 cm). Species differ in their response to light but we could distinguish 3 strategies: (1) Species strive for maximum light capture and colonies occur above a threshold light value. This limits the distribution of such species toward greater depths. These species are found in shallow ( 30 m) of the reef slope. Colony morphological variation is also unrelated to variation in the amount of light the colonies receive. (3) Species prefer low light habitats. Such species are found over the entire reef slope and they show a bimodal light preference. One part of the population (1st mode) prefers the maximum amount of light available at a particular depth. The other part of the population (2nd mode) prefers cryptic habitats with low light levels (5 to 60 µmol photons m -2 s -1 ). In these species, morphological variation in colony shape relates to light availability. Structural complexity of the reef surface within the same depth causes such vari- ation in local light availability. This variation ranges between the maximum value at a depth pre- dicted by physical laws and the minimal values encountered in cryptic habitats. The large variation in available light occurring over spatial scales as small as 10 cm distorts the direct relation between depth and light. Depth and light are only correlated as ecological factors for species that strive for maximum light capture (Strategy 1 or 2). A large depth distribution does not imply adaptation to a large light range when species have a strict preference for cryptic light environments. For such species (Strategy 3) depth is not a proxy for light. The different light strategies of species are related to morphological variation and species exploration of the reef habitat.

The role of soil pipes as a slope runoff mechanism, Subarctic Yukon, Canada

Pipeflow in subarctic slopes provides a preferential runoff mechanism that bypasses the soil matrix, rapidly conveying water to the stream. Extensive soil piping occurs in the central Wolf Creek basin, Yukon, at the interface of the organic and mineral horizons. Flow in these pipes are ephemeral, transmitting water only when the water table is within or above the zone where pipes occur. During snowmelt, pipeflow began several days after the onset of surface runoff. Pipeflow contribution increased until ground thaw lowered the water tables, leaving matrix flow within the organic layer as the dominant mode of runoff. Pipeflow accounted for 21% of runoff during the 15day melt period of 1997. Following melt, pipeflow recurred only during two intense summer rainstorms, each yielding different pipeflow response characteristics. During melt, pipeflow closely followed the daily snowmelt cycles and responded earlier than the integrated slope runoff. In the summer, pipeflow hydrographs rose and fell much quicker than direct storm runoff from the entire slope, which was dominated by fast matrix flow within the organic layer. Pipeflow contributing areas were relatively small, but their extent changed with hillslope wetness. Analysis revealed that the Manning flow formula can be combined with contributing areas to simulate pipeflow discharges. Unlike temperate environments where frozen ground is not a factor, the frost table position significantly controls the position of the phreatic surface, and must be considered in any models of pipeflow in permafrost slopes.