Enhancing NeuroImaging Genetics Through Meta-Analysis Consortium Research Articles

From teeth to brain: dental caries causally affects the cortical thickness of the banks of the superior temporal sulcus

ObjectivesDental caries is one of the most prevalent oral diseases and causes of tooth loss. Cross-sectional studies observed epidemiological associations between dental caries and brain degeneration disorders, while it is unknown whether dental caries causally affect the cerebral structures. This study tested whether genetically proxied DMFS (the sum of Decayed, Missing, and Filled tooth Surfaces) causally impacts the brain cortical structure using Mendelian randomization (MR).MethodsThe summary-level GWAS meta-analysis data from the GLIDE consortium were used for DMFS, including 26,792 participants. ENIGMA (Enhancing NeuroImaging Genetics through Meta Analysis) consortium GWAS summary data of 51,665 patients were used for brain structure. This study estimated the causal effects of DMFS on the surface area (SA) and thickness (TH) of the global cortex and functional cortical regions accessed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Inverse-variance weighted (IVW) was used as the primary estimate, the MR pleiotropy residual sum and outlier (MR-PRESSO), the MR-Egger intercept test, and leave-one-out analyses were used to examine the potential horizontal pleiotropy.ResultsGenetically proxied DMFS decreases the TH of the banks of the superior temporal sulcus (BANSSTS) with or without global weighted (weighted, β = − 0.0277 mm, 95% CI: − 0.0470 mm to − 0.0085 mm, P = 0.0047; unweighted, β = − 0.0311 mm, 95% CI: − 0.0609 mm to − 0.0012 mm, P = 0.0412). The causal associations were robust in various sensitivity analyses.ConclusionsDental caries causally decrease the cerebral cortical thickness of the BANKSSTS, a cerebral cortical region crucial for language-related functions, and is the most affected brain region in Alzheimer’s disease. This investigation provides the first evidence that dental caries causally affects brain structure, proving the existence of teeth-brain axes. This study also suggested that clinicians should highlight the causal effects of dental caries on brain disorders during the diagnosis and treatments, the cortical thickness of BANKSSTS is a promising diagnostic measurement for dental caries-related brain degeneration.

Large-Scale Analysis of Brain Morphometry in Anorexia Nervosa

In the current issue of Biological Psychiatry, Walton et al. (1) report outcomes of a large-scale investigation into the brain morphometry of anorexia nervosa (AN). The study is a result of a collaboration across 22 global sites that have been brought together under the ENIGMA (Enhancing Neuro Imaging Genetics through Meta Analysis) consortium (2). ENIGMA began in 2009 and now comprises more than 50 groups working to pool data in neuroscience, psychiatry, neurology, and genetics to address questions concerning brain structure and function in health and disease.

Schizophrenia Polygenic Risk During Typical Development Reflects Multiscale Cortical Organization

BackgroundSchizophrenia is widely recognized as a neurodevelopmental disorder. Abnormal cortical development in otherwise typically developing children and adolescents may be revealed using polygenic risk scores for schizophrenia (PRS-SCZ). MethodsWe assessed PRS-SCZ and cortical morphometry in typically developing children and adolescents (3–21 years, 46.8% female) using whole-genome genotyping and T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (n = 390) from the PING (Pediatric Imaging, Neurocognition, and Genetics) cohort. We contextualized the findings using 1) age-matched transcriptomics, 2) histologically defined cytoarchitectural types and functionally defined networks, and 3) case-control differences of schizophrenia and other major psychiatric disorders derived from meta-analytic data of 6 ENIGMA (Enhancing Neuro Imaging Genetics through Meta Analysis) working groups, including a total of 12,876 patients and 15,670 control participants. ResultsHigher PRS-SCZ was associated with greater cortical thickness, which was most prominent in areas with heightened gene expression of dendrites and synapses. PRS-SCZ–related increases in vertexwise cortical thickness were mainly distributed in association cortical areas, particularly the ventral attention network, while relatively sparing koniocortical type cortex (i.e., primary sensory areas). The large-scale pattern of cortical thickness increases related to PRS-SCZ mirrored the pattern of cortical thinning in schizophrenia and mood-related psychiatric disorders derived from the ENIGMA consortium. Age group models illustrate a possible trajectory from PRS-SCZ–associated cortical thickness increases in early childhood toward thinning in late adolescence, with the latter resembling the adult brain phenotype of schizophrenia. ConclusionsCollectively, combining imaging genetics with multiscale mapping, our work provides novel insight into how genetic risk for schizophrenia affects the cortex early in life.

Brain Structure in Acutely Underweight and Partially Weight-Restored Individuals With Anorexia Nervosa: A Coordinated Analysis by the ENIGMA Eating Disorders Working Group

BackgroundThe pattern of structural brain abnormalities in anorexia nervosa (AN) is still not well understood. While several studies report substantial deficits in gray matter volume and cortical thickness in acutely underweight patients, others find no differences, or even increases in patients compared with healthy control subjects. Recent weight regain before scanning may explain some of this heterogeneity. To clarify the extent, magnitude, and dependencies of gray matter changes in AN, we conducted a prospective, coordinated meta-analysis of multicenter neuroimaging data. MethodsWe analyzed T1-weighted structural magnetic resonance imaging scans assessed with standardized methods from 685 female patients with AN and 963 female healthy control subjects across 22 sites worldwide. In addition to a case-control comparison, we conducted a 3-group analysis comparing healthy control subjects with acutely underweight AN patients (n = 466) and partially weight-restored patients in treatment (n = 251). ResultsIn AN, reductions in cortical thickness, subcortical volumes, and, to a lesser extent, cortical surface area were sizable (Cohen’s d up to 0.95), widespread, and colocalized with hub regions. Highlighting the effects of undernutrition, these deficits were associated with lower body mass index in the AN sample and were less pronounced in partially weight-restored patients. ConclusionsThe effect sizes observed for cortical thickness deficits in acute AN are the largest of any psychiatric disorder investigated in the ENIGMA (Enhancing Neuro Imaging Genetics through Meta Analysis) Consortium to date. These results confirm the importance of considering weight loss and renutrition in biomedical research on AN and underscore the importance of treatment engagement to prevent potentially long-lasting structural brain changes in this population.

Feasibility of FreeSurfer Processing for T1-Weighted Brain Images of 5-Year-Olds: Semiautomated Protocol of FinnBrain Neuroimaging Lab.

Pediatric neuroimaging is a quickly developing field that still faces important methodological challenges. Pediatric images usually have more motion artifact than adult images. The artifact can cause visible errors in brain segmentation, and one way to address it is to manually edit the segmented images. Variability in editing and quality control protocols may complicate comparisons between studies. In this article, we describe in detail the semiautomated segmentation and quality control protocol of structural brain images that was used in FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study and relies on the well-established FreeSurfer v6.0 and ENIGMA (Enhancing Neuro Imaging Genetics through Meta Analysis) consortium tools. The participants were typically developing 5-year-olds [n = 134, 5.34 (SD 0.06) years, 62 girls]. Following a dichotomous quality rating scale for inclusion and exclusion of images, we explored the quality on a region of interest level to exclude all regions with major segmentation errors. The effects of manual edits on cortical thickness values were relatively minor: less than 2% in all regions. Supplementary Material cover registration and additional edit options in FreeSurfer and comparison to the computational anatomy toolbox (CAT12). Overall, we conclude that despite minor imperfections FreeSurfer can be reliably used to segment cortical metrics from T1-weighted images of 5-year-old children with appropriate quality assessment in place. However, custom templates may be needed to optimize the results for the subcortical areas. Through visual assessment on a level of individual regions of interest, our semiautomated segmentation protocol is hopefully helpful for investigators working with similar data sets, and for ensuring high quality pediatric neuroimaging data.

Cross disorder comparisons of brain structure in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, and 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: A review of ENIGMA findings.

This review compares the main brain abnormalities in schizophrenia (SZ), bipolar disorder (BD), major depressive disorder (MDD), and 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome (22q11DS) determined by ENIGMA (Enhancing Neuro Imaging Genetics through Meta Analysis) consortium investigations. We obtained ranked effect sizes for subcortical volumes, regional cortical thickness, cortical surface area, and diffusion tensor imaging abnormalities, comparing each of these disorders relative to healthy controls. In addition, the studies report on significant associations between brain imaging metrics and disorder-related factors such as symptom severity and treatments. Visual comparison of effect size profiles shows that effect sizes are generally in the same direction and scale in severity with the disorders (in the order SZ > BD > MDD). The effect sizes for 22q11DS, a rare genetic syndrome that increases the risk for psychiatric disorders, appear to be much larger than for either of the complex psychiatric disorders. This is consistent with the idea of generally larger effects on the brain of rare compared to common genetic variants. Cortical thickness and surface area effect sizes for 22q11DS with psychosis compared to 22q11DS without psychosis are more similar to those of SZ and BD than those of MDD; a pattern not observed for subcortical brain structures and fractional anisotropy effect sizes. The observed similarities in effect size profiles for cortical measures across the psychiatric disorders mimic those observed for shared genetic variance between these disorders reported based on family and genetic studies and are consistent with shared genetic risk for SZ and BD and structural brain phenotypes.

A global collaboration to study intimate partner violence-related head trauma: The ENIGMA consortium IPV working group.

Intimate partner violence includes psychological aggression, physical violence, sexual violence, and stalking from a current or former intimate partner. Past research suggests that exposure to intimate partner violence can impact cognitive and psychological functioning, as well as neurological outcomes. These seem to be compounded in those who suffer a brain injury as a result of trauma to the head, neck or body due to physical and/or sexual violence. However, our understanding of the neurobehavioral and neurobiological effects of head trauma in this population is limited due to factors including difficulty in accessing/recruiting participants, heterogeneity of samples, and premorbid and comorbid factors that impact outcomes. Thus, the goal of the Enhancing NeuroImaging Genetics through Meta-Analysis (ENIGMA) Consortium Intimate Partner Violence Working Group is to develop a global collaboration that includes researchers, clinicians, and other key community stakeholders. Participation in the working group can include collecting harmonized data, providing data for meta- and mega-analysis across sites, or stakeholder insight on key clinical research questions, promoting safety, participant recruitment and referral to support services. Further, to facilitate the mega-analysis of data across sites within the working group, we provide suggestions for behavioral surveys, cognitive tests, neuroimaging parameters, and genetics that could be used by investigators in the early stages of study design. We anticipate that the harmonization of measures across sites within the working group prior to data collection could increase the statistical power in characterizing how intimate partner violence-related head trauma impacts long-term physical, cognitive, and psychological health.

Greater male than female variability in regional brain structure across the lifespan.

For many traits, males show greater variability than females, with possible implications for understanding sex differences in health and disease. Here, the ENIGMA (Enhancing Neuro Imaging Genetics through Meta‐Analysis) Consortium presents the largest‐ever mega‐analysis of sex differences in variability of brain structure, based on international data spanning nine decades of life. Subcortical volumes, cortical surface area and cortical thickness were assessed in MRI data of 16,683 healthy individuals 1‐90 years old (47% females). We observed significant patterns of greater male than female between‐subject variance for all subcortical volumetric measures, all cortical surface area measures, and 60% of cortical thickness measures. This pattern was stable across the lifespan for 50% of the subcortical structures, 70% of the regional area measures, and nearly all regions for thickness. Our findings that these sex differences are present in childhood implicate early life genetic or gene‐environment interaction mechanisms. The findings highlight the importance of individual differences within the sexes, that may underpin sex‐specific vulnerability to disorders.

Neuroimaging studies within Cognitive Genetics Collaborative Research Organization aiming to replicate and extend works of ENIGMA.

Reproducibility is one of the most important issues for generalizing the results of clinical research; however, low reproducibility in neuroimaging studies is well known. To overcome this problem, the Enhancing Neuroimaging Genetics through Meta‐Analysis (ENIGMA) consortium, an international neuroimaging consortium, established standard protocols for imaging analysis and employs either meta‐ and mega‐analyses of psychiatric disorders with large sample sizes. The Cognitive Genetics Collaborative Research Organization (COCORO) in Japan promotes neurobiological studies in psychiatry and has successfully replicated and extended works of ENIGMA especially for neuroimaging studies. For example, (a) the ENIGMA consortium showed subcortical regional volume alterations in patients with schizophrenia (n = 2,028) compared to controls (n = 2,540) across 15 cohorts using meta‐analysis. COCORO replicated the volumetric changes in patients with schizophrenia (n = 884) compared to controls (n = 1,680) using the ENIGMA imaging analysis protocol and mega‐analysis. Furthermore, a schizophrenia‐specific leftward asymmetry for the pallidum volume was demonstrated; and (b) the ENIGMA consortium identified white matter microstructural alterations in patients with schizophrenia (n = 1,963) compared to controls (n = 2,359) across 29 cohorts. Using the ENIGMA protocol, a study from COCORO showed similar results in patients with schizophrenia (n = 696) compared to controls (n = 1,506) from 12 sites using mega‐analysis. Moreover, the COCORO study found that schizophrenia, bipolar disorder (n = 211) and autism spectrum disorder (n = 126), but not major depressive disorder (n = 398), share similar white matter microstructural alterations, compared to controls. Further replication and harmonization of the ENIGMA consortium and COCORO will contribute to the generalization of their research findings.

M156. CORTICAL NEUROANATOMICAL SIGNATURE OF SCHIZOTYPY IN 2,695 INDIVIDUALS ASSESSED IN A WORLDWIDE ENIGMA STUDY

BackgroundCortical neuroanatomical abnormalities have been reported along a continuum between individuals with chronic schizophrenia, first-episode psychosis, clinical high risk for psychosis, and healthy individuals self-reporting subclinical psychotic-like experiences (or schizotypy). Recently, the Schizophrenia Working Group within the ENIGMA (Enhancing Neuro Imaging Genetics through Meta Analysis) consortium provided meta-analytic evidence for robust cortical thickness abnormalities in schizophrenia, while also indicating that these abnormalities are influenced by illness severity and treatment with antipsychotic medications. In this context, schizotypy research allows the investigation of cortical neuroanatomy associated with the expression of subclinical psychotic-like symptoms without the potential influence of a psychotic illness, its severity, or the use of antipsychotics. This study presents the first large-scale imaging meta-analysis of cortical thickness in schizotypy using standardized methods from 23 datasets worldwide.MethodsCortical thickness and surface area were assessed in MRI scans of 2,695 healthy individuals (mean [range] age of 29.1 [17–55.8], 46.3% male) who had also completed validated self-report schizotypy questionnaires. Each site processed their local T1-weighted MRI scans using FreeSurfer and, following the protocol outlined in the ENIGMA Schizophrenia Working Group study, extracted cortical thickness for 70 Desikan-Killiany (DK) atlas regions (34 regions per hemisphere + left and right hemisphere mean thickness). At each site, partial correlation analyses were performed between regional cortical thickness by ROI and total schizotypy scores in R, predicting the left, right and mean cortical thickness, adjusting for sex, age and site. Random-effects meta-analyses of partial correlation effect sizes for each of the DK atlas regions were performed using R’s metafor package. False discovery rate (pFDR < .05) was used to control for multiple comparisons.ResultsWe found significant positive associations between subclinical psychotic-like experiences and mean cortical thickness of the medial orbitofrontal cortex (r = .077; pFDR = .006) and the frontal pole (r = .073; pFDR = .006). When assessed separately by hemisphere, meta-analysis revealed a significant positive association between subclinical psychotic-like experiences and cortical thickness of the left medial orbitofrontal cortex (r = .066; pFDR = .044), and at trend-level with the right medial orbitofrontal cortex (r = .062; pFDR = .053) and the left frontal pole (r = .062; pFDR = .053). No significant associations were observed for surface area.DiscussionWorldwide cooperative analyses of large-scale brain imaging data support a profile of cortical thickness abnormalities involving prefrontal cortical regions positively related to schizotypy in healthy individuals. These findings are not secondary to potential influences of disease chronicity or antipsychotic medication on the neuroanatomical correlates of psychotic-like experiences. The directionality of the observed meta-analytical effects in schizotypy is opposite to those previously reported in patients with schizophrenia (i.e., thinner cortex). The present findings of increased thickness may indicate early microstructural deficits (e.g. in myelination) that contribute to vulnerability for psychosis. Alternatively, these may reflect mechanisms of resilience associated with the expression of subclinical manifestations of psychotic symptoms in otherwise healthy individuals.

Cross-Disorder Analysis of Brain Structural Abnormalities in Six Major Psychiatric Disorders: A Secondary Analysis of Mega- and Meta-analytical Findings From the ENIGMA Consortium

BackgroundNeuroimaging studies have consistently reported similar brain structural abnormalities across different psychiatric disorders. Yet, the extent and regional distribution of shared morphometric abnormalities between disorders remains unknown. MethodsHere, we conducted a cross-disorder analysis of brain structural abnormalities in 6 psychiatric disorders based on effect size estimates for cortical thickness and subcortical volume differences between healthy control subjects and psychiatric patients from 11 mega- and meta-analyses from the ENIGMA (Enhancing Neuro Imaging Genetics Through Meta Analysis) consortium. Correlational and exploratory factor analyses were used to quantify the relative overlap in brain structural effect sizes between disorders and to identify brain regions with disorder-specific abnormalities. ResultsBrain structural abnormalities in major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and obsessive-compulsive disorder were highly correlated (r = .443 to r = .782), and one shared latent underlying factor explained between 42.3% and 88.7% of the brain structural variance of each disorder. The observed shared morphometric signature of these disorders showed little similarity with brain structural patterns related to physiological aging. In contrast, patterns of brain structural abnormalities independent of all other disorders were observed in both attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. Brain regions showing high proportions of independent variance were identified for each disorder to locate disorder-specific morphometric abnormalities. ConclusionsTaken together, these results offer novel insights into transdiagnostic as well as disorder-specific brain structural abnormalities across 6 major psychiatric disorders. Limitations comprise the uncertain contribution of risk factors, comorbidities, and medication effects to the observed pattern of results that should be clarified by future research.

ENIGMA and Global Neuroscience: A Decade of Large-Scale Studies of the Brain in Health and Disease Across More Than 40 Countries

We summarize the crucial role of harmonization in the last decade of work by the ENIGMA (Enhancing Neuro Imaging Genetics through Meta-Analysis) Consortium, a global alliance of >1,400 scientists across 43 countries, studying the human brain in health and disease. ENIGMA coordinates large-scale international analyses of brain data. Harmonized analysis protocols are used to derive features across datasets worldwide, prior to multi-site statistical analysis.

Polygenic Architecture of Human Neuroanatomical Diversity.

We analyzed the genomic architecture of neuroanatomical diversity using magnetic resonance imaging and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data from >26 000 individuals from the UK Biobank project and 5 other projects that had previously participated in the ENIGMA (Enhancing NeuroImaging Genetics through Meta-Analysis) consortium. Our results confirm the polygenic architecture of neuroanatomical diversity, with SNPs capturing from 40% to 54% of regional brain volume variance. Chromosomal length correlated with the amount of phenotypic variance captured, r~ 0.64 on average, suggesting that at a global scale causal variants are homogeneously distributed across the genome. At a local scale, SNPs within genes (~51%) captured ~1.5 times more genetic variance than the rest, and SNPs with low minor allele frequency (MAF) captured less variance than the rest: the 40% of SNPs with MAF <5% captured <one fourth of the genetic variance. We also observed extensive pleiotropy across regions, with an average genetic correlation of rG~ 0.45. Genetic correlations were similar to phenotypic and environmental correlations; however, genetic correlations were often larger than phenotypic correlations for the left/right volumes of the same region. The heritability of differences in left/right volumes was generally not statistically significant, suggesting an important influence of environmental causes in the variability of brain asymmetry. Our code is available athttps://github.com/neuroanatomy/genomic-architecture.

Mapping Cortical and Subcortical Asymmetry in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Findings From the ENIGMA Consortium

BackgroundLateralized dysfunction has been suggested in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). However, it is currently unclear whether OCD is characterized by abnormal patterns of brain structural asymmetry. Here we carried out what is by far the largest study of brain structural asymmetry in OCD. MethodsWe studied a collection of 16 pediatric datasets (501 patients with OCD and 439 healthy control subjects), as well as 30 adult datasets (1777 patients and 1654 control subjects) from the OCD Working Group within the ENIGMA (Enhancing Neuro Imaging Genetics through Meta Analysis) Consortium. Asymmetries of the volumes of subcortical structures, and of measures of regional cortical thickness and surface areas, were assessed based on T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging scans, using harmonized image analysis and quality control protocols. We investigated possible alterations of brain asymmetry in patients with OCD. We also explored potential associations of asymmetry with specific aspects of the disorder and medication status. ResultsIn the pediatric datasets, the largest case-control differences were observed for volume asymmetry of the thalamus (more leftward; Cohen’s d = 0.19) and the pallidum (less leftward; d = −0.21). Additional analyses suggested putative links between these asymmetry patterns and medication status, OCD severity, or anxiety and depression comorbidities. No significant case-control differences were found in the adult datasets. ConclusionsThe results suggest subtle changes of the average asymmetry of subcortical structures in pediatric OCD, which are not detectable in adults with the disorder. These findings may reflect altered neurodevelopmental processes in OCD.

An Atlas of Genetically Correlated Regions of The Human Cortex: Findings From The Enigma Consortium

The Enhancing Neuro Imaging Genetics through Meta-Analysis (ENIGMA) Consortium has completed the first phase of the largest GWAS of the human cortex, currently comprised of >20,000 subjects with genome-wide genotyping and structural brain imaging. This latest effort builds on prior projects by the ENIGMA Consortium which assessed common genetic influences on subcortical and global brain volume measures (Hibar et al., 2015 Nature). Here we expand our focus to examine the common genetic determinants of cortical thickness and surface area in 68 regions spanning the entire human cortex. We identified several novel genetic variants with the most significant associations in the lateral occipital and pericalcarine gyri.These cortical findings (and prior work on subcortical brain structures) within the ENIGMA Consortium provide a rich substrate of data to develop and test novel methods to better understand the biology of the brain and disease processes. Here we developed a novel genetic clustering approach that combines LDSC regression with unsupervised clustering applied to adjacency matrices to build an atlas of genetically correlated regions across the cortex. This identifies clusters of brain regions with genetically similar developmental origins. By adding subcortical brain regions, we identify a “genetic connectivity matrix” of subcortical brain volumes and cortical regions with the highest genetic similarity. This atlas provides a novel, data-driven parcellation of the brain to better understand the genetics of complex behaviors subserved by functionally or genetically related brain regions.To evaluate the genetically correlated brain regions for suitability as biomarkers for complex behaviors, we measured the genetic correlation using LDSC regression between each brain region GWAS and GWAS for schizophrenia (Ripke et al., 2014 Nature) and other major psychiatric disorders. These results suggest a possible link between genetically related regions in the frontal cortex and susceptibility to schizophrenia.The findings discussed here represent the largest effort to date to build an atlas defined by genetically correlated brain regions and evaluate genetic relationships among cortical brain regions and several major psychiatric disorders including schizophrenia. These results provide insights into the genetic architecture of the brain and represent a valuable resource for understanding the relationship between brain measures and behavior.

Neuroimaging Phenotypes Implicated For GWAS of PTSD Through The PGC And ENIGMA Worldwide Consortia

Here, we present the results of a large-scale neuroimaging-genetics consortium study on PTSD conducted by the Psychiatric Genomic Consortium (PGC) and Enhancing Neuroimaging Genetics Through Meta-Analysis (ENIGMA) PTSD Working Group. Hippocampus, hippocampal subfield, and amygdala volume differences are strongly implicated in PTSD, but findings have not always been consistent. Our goal was to characterize these neuroimaging phenotypes for subsequent GWAS. We analyzed neuroimaging and clinical data from 1,868 subjects (794 PTSD patients) contributed by 16 cohorts, representing the largest neuroimaging study of PTSD to date. We assessed the volumes of eight subcortical structures (nucleus accumbens, amygdala, caudate, hippocampus, pallidum, putamen, thalamus, and lateral ventricle) in n=1,868. We assessed 11 hippocampal subfield volumes bilaterally (cornu ammonis 1 (CA1), CA3, CA4, dentate gyrus (DG), fimbria, fissure, hippocampus-amygdala transition area (HATA), molecular layer, parasubiculum, presubiculum, subiculum, and tail) in n=1,398. We used a standardized image-analysis and quality-control pipeline established by the ENIGMA consortium to assess groups with current PTSD, lifetime PTSD, and current PTSD in participants exposed to childhood trauma. We found that hippocampus and amygdala were smaller in subjects with current PTSD compared to trauma-exposed controls (hippocampus, Cohen’s D=-0.17, p=0.00054; amygdala, D=-0.11, p=0.025). Even though the female-only analysis contained approximately 1,100 fewer subjects than the full sample, the hippocampal results were more significant in females (p=0.00012), and Cohen’s D estimates indicated a stronger effect than in the full sample (D=-0.31 vs. D=-0.17). Current PTSD was associated with smaller subfield volume in the right hippocampal tail (p=0.002, D=0.26) and larger volumes in the right CA1 (p=0.002, D=0.26) in individuals exposed to at least one traumatic event in childhood. Our study is not subject to the biases of meta-analyses of published data, and represents an important milestone in an ongoing collaborative effort to examine the neurobiological underpinnings of PTSD and the brain’s response to trauma. The association of PTSD and abnormalities in the CA1 are consistent with its role in contextual fear memory, which is a widely accepted behavioral model for PTSD. The hippocampus and amygdala are crucial for fear processing, episodic and contextual learning and memory, processes related to PTSD symptomatology. This meta-analysis firmly establishes the importance of the hippocampus and amygdala in PTSD, which by itself represents a substantial step forward in identifying the most plausible neuroimaging phenotypes for a GWAS of PTSD.

Mapping cortical brain asymmetry in 17,141 healthy individuals worldwide via the ENIGMA Consortium

Hemispheric asymmetry is a cardinal feature of human brain organization. Altered brain asymmetry has also been linked to some cognitive and neuropsychiatric disorders. Here, the ENIGMA (Enhancing NeuroImaging Genetics through Meta-Analysis) Consortium presents the largest-ever analysis of cerebral cortical asymmetry and its variability across individuals. Cortical thickness and surface area were assessed in MRI scans of 17,141 healthy individuals from 99 datasets worldwide. Results revealed widespread asymmetries at both hemispheric and regional levels, with a generally thicker cortex but smaller surface area in the left hemisphere relative to the right. Regionally, asymmetries of cortical thickness and/or surface area were found in the inferior frontal gyrus, transverse temporal gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, and entorhinal cortex. These regions are involved in lateralized functions, including language and visuospatial processing. In addition to population-level asymmetries, variability in brain asymmetry was related to sex, age, and intracranial volume. Interestingly, we did not find significant associations between asymmetries and handedness. Finally, with two independent pedigree datasets (n = 1,443 and 1,113, respectively), we found several asymmetries showing significant, replicable heritability. The structural asymmetries identified and their variabilities and heritability provide a reference resource for future studies on the genetic basis of brain asymmetry and altered laterality in cognitive, neurological, and psychiatric disorders.

Smaller Hippocampal Volume in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Multisite ENIGMA-PGC Study: Subcortical Volumetry Results From Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Consortia

BackgroundMany studies report smaller hippocampal and amygdala volumes in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), but findings have not always been consistent. Here, we present the results of a large-scale neuroimaging consortium study on PTSD conducted by the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium (PGC)–Enhancing Neuroimaging Genetics through Meta-Analysis (ENIGMA) PTSD Working Group. MethodsWe analyzed neuroimaging and clinical data from 1868 subjects (794 PTSD patients) contributed by 16 cohorts, representing the largest neuroimaging study of PTSD to date. We assessed the volumes of eight subcortical structures (nucleus accumbens, amygdala, caudate, hippocampus, pallidum, putamen, thalamus, and lateral ventricle). We used a standardized image-analysis and quality-control pipeline established by the ENIGMA consortium. ResultsIn a meta-analysis of all samples, we found significantly smaller hippocampi in subjects with current PTSD compared with trauma-exposed control subjects (Cohen’s d = −0.17, p = .00054), and smaller amygdalae (d = −0.11, p = .025), although the amygdala finding did not survive a significance level that was Bonferroni corrected for multiple subcortical region comparisons (p < .0063). ConclusionsOur study is not subject to the biases of meta-analyses of published data, and it represents an important milestone in an ongoing collaborative effort to examine the neurobiological underpinnings of PTSD and the brain’s response to trauma.

Do regional brain volumes and major depressive disorder share genetic architecture? A study of Generation Scotland (n=19\u2009762), UK Biobank (n=24\u2009048) and the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (n=5766)

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a heritable and highly debilitating condition. It is commonly associated with subcortical volumetric abnormalities, the most replicated of these being reduced hippocampal volume. Using the most recent published data from Enhancing Neuroimaging Genetics through Meta-analysis (ENIGMA) consortium’s genome-wide association study of regional brain volume, we sought to test whether there is shared genetic architecture between seven subcortical brain volumes and intracranial volume (ICV) and MDD. We explored this using linkage disequilibrium score regression, polygenic risk scoring (PRS) techniques, Mendelian randomisation (MR) analysis and BUHMBOX. Utilising summary statistics from ENIGMA and Psychiatric Genomics Consortium, we demonstrated that hippocampal volume was positively genetically correlated with MDD (rG=0.46, P=0.02), although this did not survive multiple comparison testing. None of the other six brain regions studied were genetically correlated and amygdala volume heritability was too low for analysis. Using PRS analysis, no regional volumetric PRS demonstrated a significant association with MDD or recurrent MDD. MR analysis in hippocampal volume and MDD identified no causal association, however, BUHMBOX analysis identified genetic subgrouping in GS:SFHS MDD cases only (P=0.00281). In this study, we provide some evidence that hippocampal volume and MDD may share genetic architecture in a subgroup of individuals, albeit the genetic correlation did not survive multiple testing correction and genetic subgroup heterogeneity was not replicated. In contrast, we found no evidence to support a shared genetic architecture between MDD and other regional subcortical volumes or ICV.

ENIGMA-Viewer: interactive visualization strategies for conveying effect sizes in meta-analysis

BackgroundGlobal scale brain research collaborations such as the ENIGMA (Enhancing Neuro Imaging Genetics through Meta Analysis) consortium are beginning to collect data in large quantity and to conduct meta-analyses using uniformed protocols. It becomes strategically important that the results can be communicated among brain scientists effectively. Traditional graphs and charts failed to convey the complex shapes of brain structures which are essential to the understanding of the result statistics from the analyses. These problems could be addressed using interactive visualization strategies that can link those statistics with brain structures in order to provide a better interface to understand brain research results.ResultsWe present ENIGMA-Viewer, an interactive web-based visualization tool for brain scientists to compare statistics such as effect sizes from meta-analysis results on standardized ROIs (regions-of-interest) across multiple studies. The tool incorporates visualization design principles such as focus+context and visual data fusion to enable users to better understand the statistics on brain structures. To demonstrate the usability of the tool, three examples using recent research data are discussed via case studies.ConclusionsENIGMA-Viewer supports presentations and communications of brain research results through effective visualization designs. By linking visualizations of both statistics and structures, users can gain more insights into the presented data that are otherwise difficult to obtain. ENIGMA-Viewer is an open-source tool, the source code and sample data are publicly accessible through the NITRC website (http://www.nitrc.org/projects/enigmaviewer_20). The tool can also be directly accessed online (http://enigma-viewer.org).