Enhancement Of Mechanical Performance Research Articles

Analysis of the impact of exfoliated graphene oxide on the mechanical performance and in-plane fracture resistance of epoxy-based nanocomposite

Graphene oxide (GO) is a versatile material, derivative of graphene, and it has gained significant attention in the field of polymer nanocomposites due to its exceptional properties and unique structural features. These characteristics make it a successful secondary reinforcing agent for enhancing mechanical performance, fatigue resistance, and other various physical and thermal properties of nanocomposites. However, the low fracture toughness of nanocomposite has restricted the overall structural applications. In this research work, the epoxy nanocomposites were prepared with different weights of exfoliated graphene oxide (E-GO) nanoparticles by using a dual mixing probe ultra-sonication for homogeneous distribution and proper dispersion. A substantial enhancement in mechanical performance and fracture toughness of nanocomposite was observed. The good dispersion and interfacial adhesion among E-GO and epoxy matrix were investigated through the critical analysis of the fracture surfaces of the nanocomposite. The enhancement of mechanical performance of E-GO nanofiller-reinforced epoxy composite was observed superior at 1 wt. % of GO60 particle concentration. The maximum increment of mechanical properties such as tensile strength, flexural strength, and work of fracture were 40.763, 39.23, and 12.106 % respectively, whereas maximum tensile modulus and flexural modulus were 19.3724, 27.63 % at 1.5 wt. % of GO60 as compared to the neat composite. However, in the case of fracture toughness and energy, maximum improvement of 1.256 Mpa.m1/2 and 0.472 KJ/m2 respectively was observed at 1 wt. % of GO60. Such enhancement was primarily due to the bolstering of in-plane crack propagation resistance in the nanocomposites. Additionally, the highlight point in thermomechanical properties of the polymer nanocomposite is optimal storage modulus and damping factor such as 4066.75 MPa, and 0.46 respectively, for the GO60 at 1 wt.% nanocomposite. Moreover, GO60 at 1 wt.% demonstrates greater thermal stability, withstanding up to 50% material degradation at 413.65°C.

Enhancement of Mechanical Performance of Nanostructured Materials by Architectural Design of Pentablock Terpolymers

Enhancement of Mechanical Performance of Nanostructured Materials by Architectural Design of Pentablock Terpolymers

The impact of wurtzite and mesoporous Zn-Al-CO3 LDH on the performance of alkali-activated-slag: Setting times, compressive strength, and radiation attenuation

Although including wurtzite (ZnO) in cementitious materials significantly enhances gamma-radiation mitigation, its use is not recommended as it excessively prolongs the setting time and negatively affects the early strength. Hence, this study attempts to address these issues while enhancing radiation-shielding by including Zn-Al-CO3 layered double hydroxide (LDH) as an alternative for ZnO. Wurtzite and LDH nanoparticles were laboratory-prepared via the co-precipitation method; their specific surface areas were found to be 2290 and 65483 cm2/g, respectively, referring to the high reactivity of LDH. Five pastes were prepared; alkali-activated slag was used as a control specimen (0 wt% nanoparticles), while the others contained 0.5 and 1 wt% ZnO or LDH. The comparative study showed that incorporating Zn-phase as LDH solved the abovementioned problems. The setting time of LDH-modified specimens fits in the standard limit (50–375 mins), while others contain ZnO exceed this limit. The inclusion of 0.5 wt%LDH showed a remarkable enhancement in mechanical performance; compressive-strength values increased by 36.2 and 31.1 % concerning the control specimen after 1 and 28-days, respectively. In contrast, the same dose of ZnO reduced strength by 26.3 and 13 %. Moreover, the LDH-modified specimens displayed the highest linear-attenuation coefficient and lowest half-value layer when exposed to two gamma-ray sources (Co-60 and Cs-137). The X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis and scanning electron microscope proved that the formation of Zn(OH)2 in the ZnO-modified specimens is the main reason behind high retardation and reduction in compressive-strength. The filling/active-seeds/chemical-reactivity actions of LDH resulted from its high surface area, forming a high amount from different strength-giving-phases (compact structure) in the LDH-modified specimens.

Structuring restricted amorphous molecular chains in the reinforced cellulose film by uniaxial stretching

The construction of the preferred orientation structure by stretching is an efficient strategy to fabricate high-performance cellulose film and it is still an open issue whether crystalline structure or amorphous molecular chain is the key factor in determining the enhanced mechanical performance. Herein, uniaxial stretching with constant width followed by drying in a stretching state was carried out to cellulose hydrogels with physical and chemical double cross-linking networks, achieving high-performance regenerated cellulose films (RCFs) with an impressive tensile strength of 154.5 MPa and an elastic modulus of 5.4 GPa. The hierarchical structure of RCFs during uniaxial stretching and drying was systematically characterized from micro- to nanoscale, including microscopic morphology, crystalline structure as well as relaxation behavior at a molecular level. The two-dimensional correlation spectra of dynamic mechanical analysis and Havriliak-Negami fitting results verified that the enhanced mechanical properties of RCFs were mainly attributed to the stretch-induced tight packing and restricted relaxation of amorphous molecular chains. The new insight concerning the contribution of molecular chains in the amorphous region to the enhancement of mechanical performance for RCFs is expected to provide valuable guidance for designing and fabricating high-performance eco-friendly cellulose-based films.

Enhancement of Mechanical Performance and Swelling Resistance in Silicone Rubber Through Reinforcement with γ-Methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane-Modified Halloysite Nanotubes

Enhancement of Mechanical Performance and Swelling Resistance in Silicone Rubber Through Reinforcement with γ-Methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane-Modified Halloysite Nanotubes

Large-Scale Preparation of Mechanically High-Performance and Biodegradable PLA/PHBV Melt-Blown Nonwovens with Nanofibers

Biodegradable polylactic acid (PLA) melt-blown nonwovens are attractive candidates to replace non-degradable polypropylene melt-blown nonwovens. However, it is still an extremely challenging task to prepare PLA melt-blown nonwovens with sufficient mechanical properties for practical application. Herein, we report a simple strategy for the large-scale preparation of biodegradable PLA/poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) melt-blown nonwovens with high strength and excellent toughness. In this process, a small amount of PHBV is added to PLA to improve the latter’s crystallization rate and crystallinity. In addition, when the PHBV content increases from 0 to 7.5 wt%, the diameters of the PLA/PHBV melt-blown fibers decrease significantly (with the proportion of nanofibers increasing from 7.7% to 42.9%). The resultant PLA/PHBV (5 wt% PHBV) melt-blown nonwovens exhibit the highest mechanical properties. The tensile stress, elongation, and toughness of PLA/PHBV (5 wt% PHBV) melt-blown nonwovens reach 2.5 MPa, 45%, and 1.0 MJ·m−3, respectively. More importantly, PLA/PHBV melt-blown nonwovens can be completely degraded into carbon dioxide and water after four months in the soil, making them environmentally friendly. A general tensile-failure model of melt-blown nonwovens is proposed in this study, which may shed light on mechanical performance enhancement for nonwovens.

Laser powder bed fusion of Inconel 718-based composites: Effect of TiB2 content on microstructure and mechanical performance

The laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) additive manufacturing process has been extensively used to manufacture various nickel-based metal components because it offers the capability of manufacturing three-dimensional structures with complex shapes directly from raw materials. Although LPBF-fabricated Inconel 718 (IN718) superalloys have been successfully applied in the aerospace field, IN718-based composites can offer an alternative pathway to further enhance high-temperature performance. This systematic study examined the effect of various TiB2 contents on the microstructure and mechanical performance of IN718 fabricated by LPBF. Pure IN718 (IN718-P), IN718-1 wt% TiB2 (IN718-1) and IN718-2 wt% TiB2 (IN718-2) composites were nearly fully dense, with relative densities of 99.71%, 99.34% and 99.67% respectively, when fabricated under the optimal process parameters. The degree of grain size refinement was greater for IN718-2 than for IN718-1, and the IN718-1 grains were mainly refined in the width direction, while the IN718-2 grains were refined in both the width and length directions. The proportion of low-angle grain boundaries was significantly higher for the composites than for IN718-P, and it increased with increasing proportions of TiB2. Compared with the IN718-P sample, the microhardness, yield strength and ultimate tensile strength of IN718-2 at room temperature were increased by 19.93%, 24.83% and 11.07%, respectively, while the yield strength and ultimate tensile strength of IN718-2 at a high temperature of 650 °C were increased by 31.76% and 17.62%, respectively. This indicated that the enhancement of mechanical performance was more noticeable at high temperature than at room temperature. By contrast, less improvement in mechanical properties was achieved by adding 1 wt% TiB2 particles than by adding 2 wt% TiB2 particles. These findings indicate an alternative way to manufacture IN718 superalloys with improved mechanical properties through the synthesis of composite materials.

A residual stress-dependent mixed-mode phase-field model: Application to assessing the role of tailored residual stresses on the mechanical performance of ceramic laminates

Ceramics offer several attractive properties of industrial relevance, e.g. high strength and hardness, low thermal conductivity, and chemical inertness in critical environments. There is thus interest among researchers to improve the fracture toughness of ceramics, which is generally low and considered a major drawback. Numerous experimental studies in the literature report on the enhancement of mechanical performance of ceramic laminates, especially fracture toughness, by tailoring the residual stress, resulting in crack deflection or bifurcation. However, there is a dearth of computational models that can reliably predict the crack path and accurately quantify the improved fracture toughness. In this article, we propose a residual stress-dependent mixed-mode phase-field model within a small deformation set-up. The proposed model is efficient in including any energy dissipation effect in a consistent manner. The model can be exploited as a tool to study the effect of tailored residual stresses on the fracture toughness of ceramic laminates. We have validated our proposal by reproducing the results for a few problems that require the incorporation of residual stresses within the formulation. By conducting a set of four-point bending tests on notched composite beams made of alternating layers of Al2O3 with 5% tetragonal ZrO2 (ATZ) and Al2O3 with 30% monoclinic ZrO2 (AMZ), we demonstrate how tailored residual stresses could indeed influence the mechanical performance of ceramic laminates.

Mechanical performance enhancement of recycled aggregate concrete using GGBS and fly ash for sustainable construction

Mechanical performance enhancement of recycled aggregate concrete using GGBS and fly ash for sustainable construction

Light-oriented 3D printing of liquid crystal/photocurable resins and in-situ enhancement of mechanical performance

Additive manufacturing technology has significantly impacted contemporary industries due to its ability to generate intricate computer-designed geometries. However, 3D-printed polymer parts often possess limited application potential, primarily because of their weak mechanical attributes. To overcome this drawback, this study formulates liquid crystal/photocurable resins suitable for the stereolithography technique by integrating 4’-pentyl-4-cyanobiphenyl with a photosensitive acrylic resin. This study demonstrates that stereolithography facilitates the precise modulation of the existing liquid crystal morphology within the resin. Furthermore, the orientation of the liquid crystal governs the oriented polymerization of monomers or prepolymers bearing acrylate groups. The products of this 3D printing approach manifest anisotropic behavior. Remarkably, when utilizing liquid crystal/photocurable resins, the resulting 3D-printed objects are approximately twice as robust as those created using commercial resins in terms of their tensile, flexural, and impact properties. This pioneering approach holds promise for realizing autonomously designed structures that remain elusive with present additive manufacturing techniques.

Achieving balanced enhancement of mechanical performance and heat resistance in Cf/SiC-superalloy joints by regulating active element Ti in brazing filler

The application of Cf/SiC-superalloy joints in aerospace typically demands high strength and good heat resistance. However, the simultaneous improvement of the two properties is a pressing problem that needs to be addressed. This paper proposes the addition of diamond (C) powder to the Cu-Ni-Ti brazing filler to regulate the interface reaction between the filler and Cf/SiC composite and the initial liquefaction temperature of the interlayer, thereby achieving a balanced enhancement in both the mechanical performance and high-temperature resistance of the Cf/SiC-GH3044 joints. The results indicate that during the joining process, a brittle compound layer composed of TiC, Ti5Si3, and Ni16Ti6Si7 is formed at the Cf/SiC/interlayer interface. The thickness of the compound layer increases with elevated joining temperatures or prolonged holding times, which is detrimental to the strength of the joint. The added C particles react with the active element Ti to synthesize in situ some TiC reinforcing particles with the low thermal expansion coefficient in the interlayer. This not only suppresses the excessive growth of the brittle compound layer but also alleviates the residual thermal stress in the joint. Additionally, since Ti is a lowering-melting element in the Cu-Ni-Ti filler, the consumption of Ti by the C/Ti reaction raises the initial liquefaction temperature of the interlayer, thus improving the heat resistance of the joint. When the joining temperature and holding time were kept constant, the shear strength of the joint reached a maximum value as the C particle content increased. If the joining temperature was elevated or the holding time was extended, the C content associated with the peak strength also increased. By optimizing the C particle content, both the shear strength and heat resistance of the joint were improved. The maximum shear strength of the joint at room temperature and 900 °C were measured to be 245 MPa and 138 MPa, respectively. Moreover, the joint exhibited a maximum temperature capability of 1064 °C.

Influence of titanium particulate reinforcement on microstructural evolution and mechanical performance of AZ91 magnesium matrix surface composite developed through friction stir processing

ABSTRACT AZ91 Magnesium alloy is widely used in automobile components, bio-implants, mobile and computer parts, sporting goods, etc., owing to its low density, high strength to weight ratio, good machinability and biodegradable characteristics. However, it has moderate strength and poor ductility that hinders its engineering application. The incorporation of ceramic reinforcement in Mg alloys to form high-strength composites shows a major loss in its ductility. In this research work, friction stir processing (FSP) was used with two innovative tool designs to enhance mechanical and microstructural properties by employing titanium powders as reinforcement particles – metallic reinforcement possessing higher melting point, offering a solution to the issue. The tools were designed with stepped square profile, where in one design, the square steps were aligned with each other (S-type) and in the other design, the square edges were mis-aligned by 45˚ (D-type). Microstructural analysis was done using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. Mechanical properties, micro-indentation hardness test and compression test, were studied in detail. Results revealed that the FSP process performed with D-type tool yielded better results with more uniform distribution of Ti particles in the stir zone and grain refinement with refined recrystallised grains down to about 8 µm due to severe plastic deformation and dynamic recrystallisation. The compressive strength of the material processed using D-tool was found to be increased to 456 MPa. Ti particles established a proper interface with the matrix delaying the failure of the material, thereby improving the ductility of the material as well. The mechanisms leading to microstructural refinement and enhancement in mechanical performance are presented in detail.

Microcosmic mechanism of performance enhancement of wire arc additive manufactured Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy based on heat treatment

Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys are widely used in aerospace structures because of their excellent performances. To improve the poor mechanical performance of the Al-Zn-Mg-Cu arc additive manufactured deposit, heat treatments were used for the enhancement of mechanical performances. The microstructure of the deposits was improved after heat treatment due to the decomposition of intermetallic compounds. Meanwhile, the solid solution of alloying elements and the phase transformation led to two strengthening mechanisms: solid solution strengthening and the precipitation strengthening. The performance enhancement of the deposits was most significant under the T6 heat treatment. The horizontal and vertical strength increased to 513 and 504 MPa, respectively, and the hardness increased to 205 HV with more uniformly distribution in the vertical direction.

Strength performance and enhancement mechanism of silty sands stabilized with cement, red mud, and phosphogypsum

Reducing cement consumption by reutilizing solid wastes in soil stabilization and eliminating the residual by-product of cement hydration as much as possible could effectively improve the mechanical performance and economic benefits of problematic soils in underground engineering practices. This study employed red mud and phosphogypsum as additives to improve the engineering performance of cemented silty sands. A series of chemical, mechanical, and microstructural tests were conducted to investigate the optional mixing ratio of red mud and phosphogypsum to replace cement in silty sand stabilization, the strength improvement of silty sand with different total dosages of the composite binder (the mixture of cement, red mud, and phosphogypsum), the ratios of water to the composite binder, and curing ages compared with that stabilized with only ordinary Portland cement, and their mechanical performance enhancement mechanism. The results show that red mud and phosphogypsum could replace about 1/3 of cement consumption to the maximum in soil stabilization. The optional mixing ratio of cement: red mud: phosphogypsum for silty sand stabilization was 16:7:1. Compared with pure cement-stabilized silty sands, the silty sand stabilized with the composite binder achieved a superior mechanical performance at the initial age but a relatively slow increase over the curing age when the binder consumption was the same. The tensile and shear strength of silty sands stabilized with the composite binder were similar to that of only cement. The gradually disappeared calcium hydroxide and the downsized pores illustrated in microstructural observation implied that adding red mud and phosphogypsum in silty sand stabilization could not only compact the internal structure of the soil but also make up the defects of drying shrinkage and shrinkage cracking induced by the by-products of cement hydration. The results of this study can provide a reference for the resourceful utilization of red mud and phosphogypsum and for saving cement consumption in engineering practices.

Super Flexible and High Mobility Inorganic/Organic Composite Semiconductors for Printed Electronics on Polymer Substrates

AbstractIn solution‐processed flexible electronics, it is challenging to obtain superior electrical and mechanical performance simultaneously. Attempts have been made to fabricate polymer doped oxide thin film transistors (TFTs), where, polymer doping frustrates the crystal structure of the parent oxide and causes amorphization. However, it also degrades the device mobility rapidly, thereby, limiting the allowable polymer content to only small values, which may not be sufficient for decisive enhancement in mechanical performance. In contrast, here an approach is proposed, where a set of water‐insoluble and chemically inert polymers are chosen to form inorganic/organic composite semiconductors. Herein, these selected polymers oppose a large degree of intermixing with the parent oxide lattice at the atomic scale, promote its crystallization, and help to maintain the electrical properties of the oxide semiconductors intact, even when they're in near‐equal amounts. Consequently, unaltered linear mobility of 40–45 cm2 V−1 s−1 can be obtained in In2O3‐based inorganic/organic composite semiconductor TFTs with a near‐equal weight of polymeric additives. Owing to the large polymer content, the TFTs are found to survive rigorous bending fatigue tests down to 1.5 mm bending radius without any deterioration in their electrical performance and without the formation of micro‐cracks in the composite semiconductor material.

Interfacial properties and strengthening mechanisms of few-layered MXene reinforced Mg-based composites

In the present study, MXene-reinforced Mg matrix composites were manufactured via the electrostatic self-assembly protocol and spark plasma sintering (SPS) process to develop lightweight materials with high mechanical performance. Uniform dispersion of MXene sheets was achieved in MXene/AZ91 composites. A unique interfacial structure was confirmed in these composites, which exhibited an ultrafine MgO interlayer (grain size of ∼10 nm) coherently incorporated or intercalated into MXene layers. The unique interfacial structure contributed to robust interfacial bonding between MXene sheets and Mg matrix, resulting in a substantial mechanical performance enhancement. The yield strength of 325.3 ± 7.9 MPa and elongation of 8.8 ± 0.2% were achieved in 0.3vol% MXene/AZ91 composites, showing a significantly high strengthening efficiency of 159.1 without sacrificing ductility. Quantitatively investigation of strengthening behavior manifested that the load-transfer effect was the primary strengthening mechanism in MXene/AZ91 composites, and the simulated strength was well-matched with experimental results due to the special interfacial structure and excellent dispersion properties. This study could offer significant guidance for developing novel lightweight materials with high mechanical performance for structural applications.

Influence of Metakaolin and glass powder on mechanical behaviour of concrete

Inclusion of industrial waste products in concrete for its enhancement of mechanical performance has gained significant attention in the construction sector. This has been a main area of research since decades to contribute a sustainable and durable infrastructure globally. Cement production poses an adverse impact on the environment due to the release of carbon dioxide during its manufacturing process has directed the research to focus more on sustainable concrete. The research on sustainability is predominantly in progress and abundant research has been done on incorporation of supplementary by-products such as copper slag, waste foundry sand, bagasse ash etc. in concrete as a replacement of cement to improve the interior core structure as well as the mechanical behaviour of concrete and the results were found to be highly considerable. The current work attempts to investigate the mechanical behaviour of concrete mixed with metakaolin and glass powder as mass substitutions for cement and sand respectively. Metakaolin (MK) rich in kaolinite, possesses pozzolanic characteristics which enhances the strength of concrete as validated by much of the previous authentic research. Glass powder being rich in silica could be the best replacement for sand to improve the internal reaction process that occurs for enhanced performance of concrete. Metakaolin has been used as a partial substitution for cement in varying proportions of 0%, 4%, 8%, 12% and 16% in combination with mass replacements of glass powder for sand in proportions of 0%, 5%, 10% and 15% and the specimens were investigated for compressive, flexural and split tensile strength. The test results obtained confirmed that the combined levels of metakaolin and glass powder exhibits significant improvement in strength over conventional concrete. A combined mix of 12% metakaolin with 10% glass powder has resulted in boosting the mechanical behaviour remarkably over other replacements levels.

Hybrid solid mesh structure for electron beam melting customized implant to treat bone cancer.

15Bone replacement implants manufactured by electron beam melting have been widely studied for use in bone tumor treatment. In this application, a hybrid structure implant with a combination of solid and lattice structures guarantees strong adhesion between bone and soft tissues. This hybrid implant must exhibit adequate mechanical performance so as to satisfy the safety criteria considering repeated weight loading during the patient's lifetime. With a low volume of a clinical case, various shape and volume combinations, including both solid and lattice structures, should be evaluated to provide guidelines for implant design. This study examined the mechanical performance of the hybrid lattice by investigating two shapes of the hybrid implant and volume fractions of the solid and lattice structures, along with microstructural, mechanical, and computational analyses. These results demonstrate how hybrid implants may be designed to improve clinical outcomes by using patient-specific orthopedic implants with optimized volume fraction of the lattice structure, allowing for effective enhancement of mechanical performance as well as optimized design for bone cell ingrowth.

Investigating the effect of chitosan functionalized graphene oxide on the performance of biodegradable polycaprolactone

The present study explores the effect of chitosan (CS)-assembled graphene oxide (GO) on the microstructure and mechanical properties of polycaprolactone (PCL) nanocomposites. To this end, firstly, CS-assembled GO sheets were synthesized. Subsequently, the effect of adding various amounts of GO-CS nanohybrid and GO sheets on the rheological and mechanical performance of PCL-based nanocomposites was investigated. It was observed that GO-CS nanohybrid exhibited an interesting dual role based on the amount of addition: the motion-limiting role and the lubricating role. Additionally, the tensile strength and Young’s modulus of the PCL nanocomposite films containing GO-CS nanohybrid and GO sheets increased as compared to pure PCL, while its influence in terms of elongation at break was the opposite. CS assembly to conventional nanoparticles (e.g., GO) was found as an interesting approach for the simultaneous enhancement of mechanical performance and processability of polymer matrices for a vast range of applications, especially in packaging and tissue engineering.

Enhanced ionic conductivity and mechanical strength in nanocomposite electrolytes with nonlinear polymer architectures.

Solvent-free polymer-based electrolytes (SPEs) have gained significant attention to realize safer and flexible lithium-ion batteries. Among all polymers used for preparing SPEs electrolytes, poly(ethylene oxide), a biocompatible and biodegradable polymer, has been the most prevalent one mainly because of its high ionic conductivity in the molten state, the capability for the dissolution of a wide range of different lithium salts as well as its potential for the environmental health and safety. However, linear PEO is highly semicrystalline at room temperature and thus exhibits weak mechanical performance. Addition of nanoparticles enhances the mechanical strength and effectively decreases the crystallization of linear PEO, yet enhancement in mechanical performance often results in decreased ionic conductivity when compared to the neat linear PEO-based electrolytes; new strategies for decoupling ionic conductivity from mechanical reinforcement are urgently needed. Herein, we used lithium bis(trifluoromethane-sulfonyl)-imide (LiTFSI) salts dissolved in various nonlinear PEO architectures, including stars (4-arms and 8-arms) and hyperbranched matrices, and SiO2 nanoparticles (approximately equal to 50 nm diameter) as fillers. Compared to the linear PEO chains, the room temperature crystallinity was eliminated in the branched PEO architectures. The electrolytes with good dispersion of the nanoparticles in the nonlinear PEOs significantly enhanced ionic conductivity, specifically by approximately equal to 40% for 8-arm star, approximately equal to 28% for 4-arms star, and approximately equal to %16 for hyperbranched matrices, with respect to the composite electrolyte with the linear matrix. Additionally, the rheological results of the SPEs with branched architectures show more than three orders of magnitude enhancement in the low-frequency moduli compared to the neat linear PEO/Li systems. The obtained results demonstrate that the solvent-free composite electrolytes made of branched PEO architectures can be quite promising especially for irregularly shaped and environmentally benign battery applications suitable for medical implants, wearable devices, and stretchable electronics, which require biodegradability and biocompatibility.