Enhanced Thematic Mapper Research Articles

Land‐Use and Land‐Cover (LULC) Change Detection in Bilari, Moradabad, U.P., India

AbstractThe post‐globalization of the Indian economy marks the beginning of a new era for various industries, including manufacturing and the service sector. As a result, people begin to migrate from sub‐urban/rural area to nearby major cities in search of employment and access to modern conveniences. Land Use Land Cover (LULC) pattern change is caused by human and natural factors which include geology, elevation, and slope. LULC change assessment is best ways to manage and understand landscape transformation. Bilari block in Moradabad is India's brass city and one of Uttar Pradesh's major cities, its population growth has pushed the rapid urbanization of city in last two decades. In the present study Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) and Landsat 8 Operational Land Manager (OLI) data for years 2000 and 2023 have been employed to assess. ArcGIS Pro 2.9.0 software is used to perform layer stacking and on the raw Landsat data for pre‐processing. To find LULC changes in the study area between 2000 and 2023, supervised classification is done by adopting Maximum Likelihood Classification (MLC). From the results, it is observed that the area from pervious to impervious changes very quickly in Bilari. This research will aid in regional and urban planning, as well as agricultural management, in the years ahead.

Spatio-temporal analysis of land use and land cover dynamics in a part of Southern Nigeria

Agriculture, industrialization, transportation, urbanization and other anthropogenic activities have impacted on the natural cover of the earth surface, hence the dual concepts of land use and land cover (LULC). This study analyses spatio-temporal dynamics in LULC in part of southern Nigeria (path 189 and row 056) between 2002 and 2023using satellite imageries: namely, Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus ETM+ of 2023, 2014 and 2002. The classification of land coverwas done with the aid of ArcGIS.The study revealed spatial dynamics in LULC over the study period. The percentage of the study area under cultivation increased from 7.96% in 2002, 17.79% in 2014 to 30.67% in 2023. Also, built-up area increased from 4.36% in 2002, 8.29% in 2014 but decreased to 7.06% in 2023. While areas of dense forest were 34.59% in 2002, 21.42% in 2014 and 11.57% in 2023, bare surface was 4.94% in 2014, 1.19% in 2002 and 25.34% in 2023.Oil spill was 6.13% in 2002, 6.42% in 2014 and 2.07% in 2023. Secondary regrowth/Plantation was 0.19%, 4.22% and 5.53% in 2002, 2014 and 2023 respectively. Water bodieswere 3.37% (2002), 7.06% (2002) and 11.27% (2023). The study recommends enactment of an enabling law or enforcement of existing laws governing forest protection and raising awareness and education of inhabitants on the need to preserve the natural land cover.

The Dynamics of Urbanization and Its Effects on Rural Livelihoods: Evidence from Adama City and Adama Rural District, Ethiopia

Rapid urbanization in cities brings about both opportunities and challenges for national development. This study focuses on investigating the dynamics of urbanization and its impact on livelihoods using land use/land cover change in Adama City, located in the Oromia Regional State. Various datasets from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), including Landsat Thematic Mapper (LTM), Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETH[Formula: see text]), and Operational Land Imager (OLI), were utilized. Geographic Information System (GIS) and remote sensing tools were employed to extract relevant information from these datasets for years from 1986 to 2022. In addition, findings pertain to the impact of urbanization on income diversification and the overall welfare of farm households near Adama City was aligned with the study. The findings reveal that built-up areas and agricultural land exhibit the most significant changes over the examined period. However, these changes occur in opposite directions. The built-up area has experienced a substantial increase of 60% from 1986 to 2022, while agricultural land has decreased by 40% during the same timeframe. The conversion of farmland to built-up areas negatively impacts farm households by reducing farming activities and increasing reliance on non-farm activities, resulting in lower consumption expenditures for rural households near urban areas compared to those farther from the urban center. The result underscores the need for policies that promote appropriate land management and a well-planned urbanization process to ensure sustainable urban development. Furthermore, it is vital to enhance understanding of the spatial and temporal dynamics of urban growth and its impacts on farm households residing near urban areas. By addressing these issues, sustainable food security and poverty reduction objectives can be better achieved in peri-urban areas of the region.

Changes in Land Use and Land Cover, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index and Land Surface Temperature in the Narsingdi District During 2001 to 2021

Rapid urbanization and industrialization cause land use changes, reduce green spaces, and increase the land surface temperature. Green spaces of a city area maintain environmental quality by absorbing air pollutants and reducing land surface temperature. The present study aimed to detect the changes in land use and land cover (LULC), normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and land surface temperature (LST) in the Narsingdi district including six Upazilas from 2001 to 2021. The Landsat 7- Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+), the Landsat 8- Operational Land Imager (OLI) imageries and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data were used to analyze the LULC, NDVI, and LST by using Google Earth Engine (GEE) and ArcGIS 10.8.2. The images were analyzed into four land use classifications – agricultural land, built-up area, forest vegetation, and water body. Among all the Upazilas, Narsingdi Sadar was the vulnerable area, where agricultural land, forest coverage, and water body decreased significantly by 6.67%, 2.2%, and 4.66%, respectively. The built-up area increased by a considerable amount of 13.53% during the last twenty years. The forest coverage of Narsingdi Sadar Upazila was calculated at only 8.91% in 2021 and decreased from 11.11% in 2001. The NDVI values surprisingly increased in all the Upazilas, but in Narsingdi Sadar, it is comparatively low (0.08) than in other Upazilas. The increasing trend in LST in the Narsingdi Sadar Upazila is alarming, 1.14oC from 2001 to 2021 (0.57oC/decade). The significant changes in LULC, NDVI, and LST made the Narsingdi Sadar a more critical area in the Narsingdi district. The findings of the study will be helpful to policymakers in making appropriate decisions in future city development. J. of Sci. and Tech. Res. 5(1): 93-118, 2023

Variations in solar irradiance caused by solar cycle affect the temporal stability of ETM+ (LS7) ToA reflectance values at pseudo-invariant calibration sites (PICS)

ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to quantify the impact of the effect of long-term solar cycle variations in solar irradiance on the accuracy and temporal stability of ToA reflectance values from Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+/L7) sensor images. We used 1382 ETM+ scenes corresponding to five Pseudo-Invariant Calibration Sites (PICS), obtained between 2003 and 2020. Solar irradiance data from the Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SIM/SORCE) were used to calculate daily values of mean exoatmospheric solar irradiance (ESUN), implemented in the radiometric correction of ToA reflectance. Enhanced temporal stability coefficients and variance tests were calculated to evaluate the stability of the time series obtained. The results indicate that the use of daily SIM/SORCE solar spectra has a significant impact (alpha <0.001) on radiometric correction and the accuracy of ToA reflectance values. In radiometric calibration, the percentage of top of atmosphere temporal stability that can be recovered based on 5 Sahara PICS ETM+/L7 scenes can exceed 0.75%, 0.50%, 0.39%, 0.45%, 0.30% and 0.25% in the blue, green, red, NIR, SWIR-1 and SWIR-2 spectral bands, respectively, and is not considered statistically significant (alpha >0.05). We concluded that considering the effects of solar cycles during the radiometric calibration of multispectral sensors contributes to improving the long-term stability of ToA reflectance products.

Effects of participatory forest management programs on Land use/land cover change and its Determinants in Alle District, southwest Ethiopia

In order to create sustainable conservation policies for biodiversity, it is imperative that participatory forest management (PFM) be assessed. Forests contribute to the sustainability of the planet by controlling soil erosion in agricultural areas and by moderating the effects of climate change. However, Ethiopia's forest resources have been under intense pressure because of the increased demand for wood products and agricultural conversion. As one of the potential solutions, the PFM programme was implemented in 1990. This study set out to investigate the effects of the PFM programme on land use and land cover (LULC) in the Alle district of southwest Ethiopia, as well as the variables influencing community involvement and the obstacles to PFM implementation and community involvement. Changes in forest cover were detected using Landsat images from 1992, 2012, and 2022 obtained from Thematic Mapper (TM), Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+), and Operational Land Imager (OLI). Images were obtained during the dry season and were cloud-free. A total of 240 respondents were chosen by means of a straightforward random sampling technique, and survey data were collected using questionnaires, interviews, and field observations. Data were analyzed using ArcGIS 10.5, ERDAS Imagine 2015, SPSS version 20, and Excel 2010. The change in forest cover shows an increasing trend from 2012 to 2022. Again, grassland and wetland coverage in this study decreased rapidly. In the years 2012–2022, forest land increased from 462.7ha (74.8 %), to 569.8ha (92.1 %), while, the agricultural land, grassland, and wetland were reduced from 109.5ha (17.7 %) to 37.8ha (6.1 %), 31.9ha (5.2 %) to 0.0ha (0.0 %); 14.1 ha (2.3 %), to 10.8 ha (1.7 %) respectively. There have been beneficial developments in the forests over the last 30 years. The binary logistic regression model disclose that, land ownership had a negative impact on forest management participation, while other factors such as gender, education level, family size, TLU, access to credit, training, and law enforcement had a positive and significant (p < 0.05) effect on PFM practices. LULC change in study area causes rapid wetland ecosystem deterioration, which may result in the extinction of the most significant and ecologically valuable species and a loss of biodiversity in the environment. In this context, developing an integrated participatory approach requires rapid attention, and all farmers and stakeholders must be actively involved in PFM programs.

LULC changes in the region of the proposed Pwalugu hydropower project using GIS and remote sensing technique

&lt;p&gt;Proper understanding of LULC changes is considered an indispensable element for modeling. It is also central for planning and management activities as well as understanding the earth as a system. This study examined LULC changes in the region of the proposed Pwalugu hydropower project using remote sensing (RS) and geographic information systems (GIS) techniques. Data from the United States Geological Survey's Landsat satellite, specifically the Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM), the Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM), and the Operational Land Imager (OLI), were used. The Landsat 5 thematic mapper (TM) sensor data was processed for the year 1990; the Landsat 7 SLC data was processed for the year 2000; and the 2020 data was collected from Operation Land Image (OLI). Landsat images were extracted based on the years 1990, 2000, and 2020, which were used to develop three land cover maps. The region of the proposed Pwalugu hydropower project was divided into the following five primary LULC classes: settlements and barren lands; croplands; water bodies; grassland; and other areas. Within the three periods (1990–2000, 2000–2020, and 1990–2020), grassland has increased from 9%, 20%, and 40%, respectively. On the other hand, the change in the remaining four (4) classes varied. The findings suggest that population growth, changes in climate, and deforestation during this thirty-year period have been responsible for the variations in the LULC classes. The variations in the LULC changes could have a significant influence on the hydrological processes in the form of evapotranspiration, interception, and infiltration. This study will therefore assist in establishing patterns and will enable Ghana's resource managers to forecast realistic change scenarios that would be helpful for the management of the proposed Pwalugu hydropower project.&lt;/p&gt;

Climate Change Impacts on Maritime Resources in Lebanon Using Satellites Imagery, Chekka Case Study

This paper aims to explore the impact of climate change on underwater and coastal sites over the past few decades, with a specific focus on the Chekka area in North Lebanon. Given its rich maritime archaeology potential, this region has become a focal point, especially with the ongoing developments posing a threat to cultural resources. Detecting climate changes necessitates extensive measurements from various sources globally, including land stations, ships, and satellite imagery. In this study, we concentrate on changes in sea surface temperature (SST) over the last 20 to 40 years. The analysis heavily relies on satellite imagery, with a primary focus on Landsat 8, equipped with two bands of the thermal infrared sensor (TIRS), and Landsat 7, which carries the Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) sensor, and also Landsat 5 TM. Utilizing QGIS for the calculation of SST, our findings reveal a noteworthy increase of 1° in sea surface temperature over the past two decades. This observation underscores the significance of ongoing climate change and its potential repercussions for the underwater and coastal cultural heritage in the Chekka area and its suburbs.

Integrated assessment of flood susceptibility and exposure rate in the lower Niger Basin, Onitsha, Southeastern Nigeria

BackgroundVarious methods have been utilized to investigate and mitigate flood occurrences, yet there is a paucity of literature on factors, such as soil compositions, that contribute to persistent flooding in river basins like the Lower Niger catchment, specifically at Onitsha. Furthermore, the study seeks to furnish essential geospatial data concerning flood vulnerability, flood risks, and exposure rates in the Lower Niger Catchment area, situated in Onitsha, southeastern Nigeria.Materials and methodsSoil samples were collected from 10 specific locations identified through GPS and ground-truthing techniques. Additionally, satellite imagery from the Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM +) was utilized, with supervised classification employed to extract feature classes. Analysis operations were conducted using IDRISI software, resulting in the creation of digital elevation models (DEMs), susceptibility maps, and flood-risk zones.ResultsAnalysis revealed that the predominant soil composition in the study area comprises sandy (84.8%), silt (8.1%), and clayey (7.1%) soils. Utilizing these soil characteristics alongside relevant aerial data, exposure rates were determined at various scales to delineate the most flood-vulnerable zones in the basin. It was found that certain areas, accommodating a population exceeding 79,426 across 2,926.2 ha, were particularly susceptible to flooding. Notably, major markets such as Bridgehead, Textile, and Biafra were identified as highly susceptible, with varying degrees of risk. The prevalence of sandy soil, which facilitates increased rainwater infiltration but is also prone to rapid saturation and runoff, likely contributes to the heightened susceptibility to flooding in these areas.ConclusionGeospatial analysis employing remote sensing data indicates the high susceptibility and exposure to flooding in the lower Niger River Basin around Onitsha. Urgent mitigation efforts are imperative, necessitating the establishment of zoned areas equipped with effective drainage systems to safeguard vulnerable populations.

Land use-land cover dynamics in Boyo wetland using remote sensing and GIS for the period 1992–2022

ABSTRACT Land use changes are one of the main factors contributing to the degradation of wetland ecosystems. The objective of this study was to describe land use and land cover (LULC) change in the Boyo Wetland from 1992–2022. We employed remote sensing and GIS to obtain data for this study. As the main data source, Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM), Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) and Operational Land Imager (OLI) images were used. We downloaded Landsat images from the USGS website that were cloud-free. A supervised maximum likelihood classifier algorithm was used for the classification process. Five LULCs are identified, which include farmland, built-up areas, bare land, grazing land, and wetland. For the duration of the research period, the rate of increase in the percent of farmland, built-up, and barren land was observed to be 18.24%, 9.48%, and 4.52%, respectively, while a decreasing pattern was observed in grazing land and wetland by − 19.44% and − 12.79%, respectively. The expansion of agriculture and built-up areas owing to population growth are the primary factors influencing change in the study area. Therefore, a rapid protective measure should be taken to rehabilitate the study wetland.

Harmonized NDVI time-series from Landsat and Sentinel-2 reveal phenological patterns of diverse, small-scale cropping systems in East Africa

Capturing the phenological responses of crops in diverse, small-scale agricultural systems is one of the most notable remote sensing research gaps in Eastern Africa. Because of the heterogeneous and complex agricultural environments, remote sensing methodologies successfully implemented elsewhere yield poor results in Eastern Africa. The reliance on local rainfall and dry spells can lead to alterations in planting patterns, impacting growing season timing and yield, underscoring the importance of high temporal resolution for capturing crop phenology. We generated a high-resolution land use/land cover (LULC) classification map of 10 m using Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 imagery together with a large set of reference data acquired in situ in 2022. The LULC classification yielded an overall accuracy of 87.9% and Cohen's kappa value of 0.83. Based on the LULC map, we investigated the phenological metrics of the most important crops in the Kamuli district of Eastern Uganda by combining a multi-sensor harmonization approach, thresholding method, and cloud computing. Previously unavailable Landsat 9 band adjustment coefficients were derived. By harmonizing Landsat (LS) 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+), Landsat 8 and 9 Operational Land Imager (OLI), with Sentinel-2 Multispectral Instrument (MSI), the phenological patterns during the March to May growing season were captured using a dense temporal Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) time series. The seasonal onset for most crop types was in the end of March to middle of April while the end of the growing season occurred from the end of June to middle of July. Investigation of the 13 crop types using a high-resolution LULC map and dense, harmonized NDVI time series signifies the first field-level phenological metrics estimation of smallholder farming systems in Eastern Africa. Future research should focus on expanding the methodology in space and time to provide insights into past and current growing season development.

Land Use-Land Cover Changes and Associated Drivers: A Case of Salooni Block of Chamba

Land Use-Land Cover (LULC) changes are the anthropogenic alteration of the natural landscape. The LULC changes have been generated by a variety of factors, including natural, demographic, and economic ones, which put pressure on the land and had a variety of environmental effects. The transformation in Landscape is affecting the livelihoods of people in numerous ways. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the patterns in land use in order to determine how land should be developed, managed, and planned in order to understand the way it will be utilised in the future. In the present study, Salooni Block of Chamba district, Himachal Pradesh was subjected to a first-ever attempt at land-use change detection for the years 2002 and 2022. Satellite imageries of Landsat-7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) Landsat-8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) were used for landuse maps of 2002 and 2022 respectively. The classification was completed using a supervised classification technique and the USGS Land use Classification Scheme at Level I classes, including Agricultural Land, Barren Land, Built-up, Forest, Pasture Land, Snow Cover and Waterbody. Furthermore, fifty people aged 50 and above were interviewed to understand the local factors responsible for LU/LC change. The result indicates a rise in the forest cover, which now accounts for 48.2% of the total area. Since 2002, there has been a 2.3-fold rise in built-up land, which is a glaring indication of the pressure on land. The total area of agricultural and pasture land is decreasing, while the percentage of barren land has increased by 2%. To preserve the sustainability and food security of the ecologically vulnerable environment, stringent land use planning needs to be enforced in the mountainous region. The results of the LU/LC dynamics discussed above can be used to establish policies and strategies for restoring and enhancing the sustainability of the environment as well as the carrying capacity of the land.

Spatial distribution of Japanese encephalitis cases and correlated geo-environmental factors in southern and northern counties of China

Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a mosquito-borne disease with a spatial distribution that is linked to geo-environmental factors. The spatial distribution of JE cases and correlated geo-environmental factors were investigated in two critical counties in southern and northern China. Based on maps, enhanced thematic mapper (ETM) remote sensing datasets from Landsat and spatial datasets of JE cases, spatial distribution and spatial cluster analyses of JE cases at the village scale were performed by using the standard deviational ellipse and Ripleys K-function. Global and regional spatial cluster analyses of JE cases were also performed by using Moran's index. Regression analysis was used to analyze the relationships between geo-environmental characteristics and the risk of JE cases. At the study sites, the JE cases were not spatially clustered at the village or district (global) level, whereas there was a spatial cluster at the district (local) level. Diversity-related features for JE patients at the district and village levels were detected at two sites. In the southern counties, the distance of a village from a road was related to the village-level JE risk (OR: 0.530, 95 CI: 0.297–0.947, P = 0.032), and the number of township-level JE cases was linked to the distance of the district center from the road (R =-0.467, P = 0.025) and road length (R = 0.516, P = 0.012) in the administrative area. In northern China, the modified normalized difference water index (MNDWI) in the 5 km buffer around the village was related to village-level JE risk (OR: 0.702, 95% CI: 0.524–0.940, P = 0.018), and the number of township-level JE cases was related to the MNDWI in the administrative region (R =-0.522, P = 0.038). This study elucidates the spatial distribution patterns of JE cases and risk, as well as correlated geo-environmental features, at various spatial scales. This study will significantly assist the JE control efforts of the local Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), which is the base-level CDC, particularly concerning the allocation of medicine and medical staff, the development of immunological plans, and the allocation of pesticides and other control measures for the mosquito vectors of JE.

Analysis of methods for assessing the degree of water pollution

The most important modern methods for the monitoring of water bodies, their state of pollution and the assessment of water quality are considered. Commonly accepted, standard-ized methods for assessing water quality in water bodies include ground-based sampling, which is untimely and expensive under certain conditions. Best suited for practical use in large areas is the remote approach, which combines ground and satellite measurements to classify changes and detect pollution in closed water bodies. Satellite monitoring is a reliable tool for obtaining operational information on the state of water bodies and their changes with a certain periodicity, thanks to the use of a large set of heterogeneous data. And the availabil-ity of archived data becomes a significant advantage, opening up the possibility of comparing the results obtained and analyzing the factors influencing the state of water bodies and the environment. The paper describes the main methods and datasets that can be used for the ap-plication of remote monitoring methods based on machine learning. The use of Landsat mul-tispectral sensors, including TM (Thematic Mapper), MSS (Multispectral Scanner), ETM (Enhanced Thematic Mapper), and OLI (Operational Land Imager), is proposed as the main data set. Examples of the application of the remote sensing approach to the assessment of wa-ter pollution over large areas will be analyzed. Possible machine learning methods for solv-ing an applied problem are presented.

Hyperspectral Image Sharpening Using Fusion Techniques -A Case Study at Salah Al-Din Province/Iraq-

The data fusion process includes merging two or more pieces of information obtained from different sensors. Satellite image fusion research aims to create a new image by combining two images captured by different sensors using various methodologies. In this research, image sharpening tools were used to combine a hyperspectral image with a low spatial resolution captured by a Hyperion sensor mounted on the Earth Observation 1 (EO-1) satellite with a grayscale high spatial resolution image captured by Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM +) sensor mounted on Landsat-8 (resampling first one to ensure equal spatial resolution of both images). In addition, three techniques were adopted for implementing the Fusion mechanism: the Principal Component Analysis PCA, the Nearest Neighbor Diffusion NNDifuse, and the Gram-Schmidt method; these were used to sharpen hyperspectral data using high spatial resolution. The result showed that the Gram-Schmidt method could give Hyperspectral images with higher spectral and spatial resolution in panchromatic image data more accurately than the other methods.

PATTERN OF SPRAWL DEVELOPMENT ALONG THE ABUJA – KEFFI HIGHWAY CORRIDOR IN THE NORTH CENTRAL NIGERIA

The rapid expansion of urban areas worldwide is widely attributed to the growth of urban populations. The objective of this study is to examine the expansion of urban sprawl in the North Central area of Nigeria, specifically along the Abuja-Keffi highway corridor, over 29 years, from 1991 to 2020. The study utilized satellite imagery from three distinct spatiotemporal intervals (1991–2003, 2003–2015, and 2015–2020) and incorporated three different types of Landsat sensors, namely Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM), Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+), and Operational Land Imager (OLI). The study employed image processing and land use classification analysis techniques to generate land use and land cover (LULC). The analysis of the data reveals that there has been a significant increase in sprawling development along the Abuja-Keffi highway corridor. The built-up area of the region has undergone significant expansion over the past three decades, with the urbanized land area increasing from 1081.98 hectares (4.96%) in 1991 to 10263.15 hectares in 2020, accounting for 47.06% of the total built-up area. The research also documented two distinct forms of urban growth, specifically linear and leapfrog, throughout the corridor. The research recommends regional urban policy, urban growth boundaries as well as effective and efficient development control mechanisms in the selected settlements along the corridor. The Abuja Municipal Area Council and Karu Local Government are urged to promote urban renewal and infrastructure development through private partnerships, sustainable policies, waste management systems, and community engagement.

Analysis of Trends in Land Utilization and Land Cover Dynamics in the Kwahu West Municipality, Ghana

The connection between people and the environment has been blamed for changes. Planning for sustainable development requires awareness of land use and land cover (LULC), its severity, causes, and implications. The purpose of this study was to generate maps that illustrate the land use and land cover within the Kwahu West Municipality and detect changes to identify and analyse overall patterns in LULC changes in the area. This research employed remote sensing techniques to assess land use and land cover alterations (LULC). This study used Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) images from 2001, Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) and Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS) images from 2015, and Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) and Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS) images from 2023 to detect and quantify LULC changes that occurred over a 22-year study period. Arc GIS 10.8 and ERDAS Envision 13 were used to pre-process the data. According to the study, built-up land and bare land rose in their respective areas and years by 10.675 km2 (or 2%), 18.421 km2 (or 5%), and 29.096 km (or 7%), respectively, between 2001 and 2015 and 2015 and 2023. The overall change from 2001 to 2023 was correspondingly 29.096 km. The results depicted a drastic change in the study area's forest vegetation, which can be attributed to a sharp rise in population, urbanisation, and other infrastructure projects. These changes have been determined to cause biodiversity loss and water contamination. It is recommended that the Municipality's Lands Commission initiate a public education campaign about creating local planning schemes for lands, especially in undeveloped and underdeveloped areas.

Pre-disposed tectonic subsidence controls flood hazards and unplanned urbanisation dominates the flood disasters in the Pliocene to Holocene Kashmir basin, NW Himalayas

The Pliocene to Holocene Kashmir basin of NW Himalaya, India, is prone to various geological and climatic hazards routinely connected to the climatic and structural setting of the Himalayan intermontane basins. The topographic expression of the basin is a direct consequence of the active plate tectonic convergence between the lithosphere plates of India and Eurasia. However, the role of the tectonic framework and its contribution to flood hazards has remained an unresolved research question. Our previous work has contributed towards this problem, and here, we extend our previous work by producing robust evidence in support of the role of active faults and tectonic topography in shaping the flood hazards in the Kashmir basin and its implication for the other similar basins in the world. The Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager-Thermal Infrared Sensor (OLI-TIRS) and Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) images were used to extract pre-2014 floodwater bodies and 2014 flooded areas in the Jhelum River valley of the Kashmir region, respectively. Water pixels were extracted using the modified normalized difference water index (MNDWI) methods, and similarly, the flood depth and duration (in days) were computed. The flood depth was correlated with the Jhelum River valley's topography, morphology, and geology. The slope and topography were also associated with the 2014 flood disaster to map the influence of the pre-disposed structural setting of the basin on flood vulnerability. The results suggest that flood disasters were mainly related to the unplanned built area, which remains the dominant factor in how flood hazards have turned into disasters. The results reveal the tectonically derived structural configuration of the basin mainly contributed towards the flood hazards, which is the primary predisposed structural framework to dictate flood hazards since the formation of the basin ∼4.0 million years ago. Therefore, the primary outcome of our work is the strong evidence that flood hazards are related to the structural setting of the basin, which includes topography and geology, while the transition of flood hazards into disasters is mainly because of unplanned urbanization.

Risk Management of Coastal Ring Roads to Rate Abrasion on The Lhokseumawe City

This paper presents an approach for developing risk management strategies for ring roads in coastal abrasion Lhokseumawe ring roads. Currently, management strategies in these regions are designed to rubble mount breakwaters on coastal performance under traffic loads. However, recent large-scale waves and their associated damage to coastal areas have demonstrated the need to consider the height when making coastal management decisions. This paper aims to develop a risk management strategy that includes handling/controlling accelerated beach abrasion which damages coastal infrastructure buildings and the application of the ALARP scheme as an acceptable risk control limit for decision makers in risk management so as to minimize the potential impact at any given time... The methods consider the rate of coastal abrasion associated with hazards and the economic, social, and environmental consequences of collapse under high tide. The data were collected from the satellite Landsat range of the 1995-2021 year. The analysis adopted Digital Shoreline Analysis System with Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM). The risk management strategies are achieved by formulating and solving a multi-objective optimization problem. This problem's findings include abrasion -2.11 m/year and accretion maximum at 111.34 m or 4.45%. The height of the wave was found approximately range 2.33-10.25 sec, and the period average 4.57 m/year. In addition, the periods of the wave were in the range of 2.33-10.25 sec, and the average period was 4.57 sec. The topography characteristics were found between 0 and 8.60 meters, with an average level, is 4.30 meters. The percentage of the slope of the shoreline was found to be 2.90 to 4.47%, and the average beach slope was 3.76%. The risk management achieved in ring roads was relevant to the application scheme ALARP zone to solve the problem from very high to hight risk. The rubble mound breakwaters along the coast were believed to minimize abrasion and mitigate disasters to protect infrastructure ring roads for a long time.

Assessing urban growth in Greater Surabaya using Google Earth Engine: An evaluation of built-up area expansion in Indonesian secondary cities

Urbanization in Indonesia's cities is increasing, leading to various impacts, including negative consequences due to insufficient investment in local public infrastructure. Urbanization assessment primarily relies on examining changes in built-up areas over the past decade. These changes serve as an indicator that can be effectively derived from remote sensing data. In our study, we applied remote sensing data from the Google Earth Engine (GEE) catalog to delve into the urbanization dynamics within Greater Surabaya area, Indonesia. We employed satellite imagery from Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) and Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager and Thermal Infrared Sensor (OLI TIRS) for 2012 and 2022. We used Support Vector Machine (SVM) classification techniques to construct precise urban expansion models. Our analysis revealed distinct urban expansion trends in Mojokerto and Sidoarjo, which contrast with the relatively stable urban development trends in northern Surabaya due to the construction of toll roads. The findings provide valuable inputs for urban management, necessitating targeted interventions and strategies to address the urbanization disparities between these two areas. It underscores the critical importance of resource allocation, infrastructure development, and urban planning initiatives, with a specific focus on Gresik, to ensure sustainable urban growth and mitigate potential challenges associated with rapid expansion.