Enhanced Biodiesel Production Research Articles

Methyl ester production process from palm fatty acid distillate using hydrodynamic cavitation reactors in series with solid acid catalyst.

This study aims to optimize the reduction of free fatty acids (FFAs) in palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) using hydrodynamic cavitation reactors (HCRs) in series and a solid acid catalyst for biodiesel production. Hydrodynamic cavitation is used to accelerate the esterification of FFAs using a heterogeneous acid catalyst. There are three HCRs units, and each HCR composed of a 3D-printed rotor and stator, is separated by flanges and equipped with a basket for holding Amberlyst-15 catalyst. Through response surface methodology (RSM), the esterification process is optimized by adjusting its optimal parameters, namely, methanol (2-12 wt%), circulation time (30-170min), and rotor speed (1000-3000rpm). The optimal conditions for achieving a maximum methyl ester purity of 89.76 wt% in converting FFA in first-step esterified oil are 9 wt% methanol (molar ratio of methanol to oil of 4:1), 133min of circulation time, and 2000rpm of rotor speed. An 82.48 wt% biodiesel yield is achieved from the HCRs in series under the optimal conditions. Scanning electron microscope images reveal that after the esterification process, there are minor cracks and defects on the catalyst's resin surface, indicating the presence of residual reactants. Further examination of the catalyst after the esterification process, reveals an average absorption pore diameter of 341.41 Å and BET surface area of approximately 41.68 m2/g. Although there were slight physical changes in the catalyst, HCRs technology offers a viable FFA reduction process that could enhance biodiesel production efficiency. Moreover, the optimized conditions achieved in this study contribute to the advancement of biodiesel production processes and provide insights into the performance of the catalyst used.

Exploring the efficacy of calcined eggshell as a heterogeneous catalyst in enhancing biodiesel production through transesterification of Jatropha oil

Exploring the efficacy of calcined eggshell as a heterogeneous catalyst in enhancing biodiesel production through transesterification of Jatropha oil

Maximization of Biodiesel production from oil that produced during salmon smoking process with high amount of omega-3 by using homogenous catalyst.

The escalating global demand for oil, coupled with declining fossil fuel production, prompts the urgent exploration of renewable alternatives. To address this challenge, researchers are actively seeking environmentally friendly fuels like biodiesel. Among potential feedstocks, oil that is produced from salmon smoking process during industry emerges as a promising option. Smoked salmon oil could be a challenge when producing biodiesel due to its high content of omega-3 compounds. Using homogenous commercial catalyst from alkali to achieve the highest yield from salmon smoking oil was the aim of the current study. A Box-Behnken design and response surface methodology in Design Expert software (version 13) was used to study the effect of four main factors on the biodiesel yield from salmon smoking oil. The optimum biodiesel values were 70°C, 90 min, 0.753 wt.%, and 20 wt.% for temperature, reaction time, sodium hydroxide concentration, and methanol concentration, respectively. At these optimum values, the highest biodiesel production was 92.0% with fatty acid methyl ester contents of 83.4% and conversion efficiency of 77%. Thin-layer chromatography and thermal gravimetric analysis confirmed the successful production of biodiesel at optimized conditions. Using Aspen Plus simulation software confirmed the cost-effectiveness of the homogenous catalyst used for enhancing biodiesel production from salmon smoking oil.

Biomass to biofuel: Palm kernel shells as catalyst supports for enhanced biodiesel production

AbstractThe use of agricultural biomass fibers, specifically palm kernel shell (PKS), has significant potential to enhance biodiesel production. This approach overcomes economic barriers and contributes to sustainability by repurposing agricultural biomass. This study explores the effectiveness of PKS as a cost‐effective and sustainable catalyst support. Palm kernel shell was chosen due to its high carbon content, low ash presence, and abundance as a byproduct in the palm oil industry, making it an economically viable and environmentally friendly option. In this study, an optimized activated carbon from PKS biomass was fabricated as catalyst support to enhance biodiesel production efficiency. Using response surface methodology (RSM), the PKS was impregnated with phosphoric acid and synthesized at various acid concentrations, impregnation times, and activation times to enhance porosity for catalytic support capabilities. The experimental design included a central composite design (CCD) to vary these factors systematically and determine their optimal levels. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) analysis revealed significant development of porosity, affirming the efficient activation process. Energy dispersive X‐ray (EDX) analysis confirmed phosphorus incorporation during activation, indicating the formation of an intricate pore structure. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy highlighted the presence of functional groups pertinent to the biodiesel reaction process. The transesterification process employing PKS as a catalyst with different biobased feedstocks, such as waste frying oils from corn, palm, and sunflower, led to biodiesel yields of varying efficiencies. Notably, corn oil had the highest yield at 94.92%. This study highlights the potential of PKS as a biobased catalyst support and contributes to the broader biorefinery concept by integrating biomass utilization into renewable fuel production.

RSM integrated GWO, Driving Training, and Election-Based Algorithms for optimising ethylic biodiesel from ternary oil of neem, animal fat, and jatropha

The worldwide exploration of the ethanolysis protocol (EP) has decreased despite the multifaceted benefits of ethanol, such as lower toxicity, higher oxygen content, higher renewability, and fewer emission tail compared to methanol, and the enhanced fuel properties with improved engine characteristics of multiple-oily feedstocks (MOFs) compared to single-oily feedstocks. The study first proposed a strategy for the optimisation of ethylic biodiesel synthesis from MOFs: neem, animal fat, and jatropha oil (NFJO) on a batch reactor. The project's goals were to ensure environmental benignity and encourage the use of totally biobased products. This was made possible by the introduction of novel population based algorithms such as Driving Training-Based Optimization (DTBO) and Election-Based Optimization (EBOA), which were compared with the widely used Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO) combined with Response Surface Methodology (RSM). The yield of NFJO ethyl ester (NFJOEE) was predicted using the RSM technique, and the ideal transesterification conditions were determined using the DTBO, EBOA, and GWO algorithms. Reaction time showed a strong linear relationship with ethylic biodiesel yield, while ethanol-to-NFJO molar ratio, catalyst dosage, and reaction temperature showed nonlinear effects. Reaction time was the most significant contributor to NFJOEE yield.The important fundamental characteristics of the fuel categories were investigated using the ASTM test procedures. The maximum NFJOEE yield (86.3%) was obtained at an ethanol/NFJO molar ratio of 5.99, KOH content of 0.915 wt.%, ethylic duration of 67.43 min, and reaction temperature of 61.55 °C. EBOA outperforms DTBO and GWO regarding iteration and computation time, converging towards a global fitness value equal to 7 for 4 s, 20 for 5 s and 985 for 34 s. The key fuel properties conformed to the standards outlined by ASTMD6751 and EN 14,214 specifications. The NFJOEE fuel processing cost is 0.9328 USD, and is comparatively lesser than that of conventional diesel. The new postulated population based algorithm models can be a prospective approach for enhancing biodiesel production from numerous MOFs and ensuring a balanced ecosystem and fulfilling enviromental benignity when adopted.

Rotor–stator hydrodynamic cavitation reactor for intensification of castor oil biodiesel production

AbstractNowadays, the intensification of the production of biodiesel from non-edible oil crops is mandatory to overcome petrol-fuel depletion and environmental pollution. For the first time, enhanced biodiesel production from castor oil via rotor–stator hydrodynamic cavitation has been studied in this work. Response surface methodology based on one-factor-at-a-time design of experiments was employed for modelling and optimizing the biodiesel yield and the decrease in feedstock viscosity, density, and total acid number (TAN). The predicted optimum parameters of 8.15:1 methanol:oil (M:O), 1499 rpm, 29.38 min, 48.43 °C, and a KOH catalyst concentration of 0.74 wt.% resulted in a 96% biodiesel yield with a concomitant decrease in viscosity, density, and TAN of approximately 95%, 5.12%, and 90.02%, respectively. According to the results of the breakthrough kinetic calculations, the reaction is pseudo-second order, with the activation energy, frequency factor, and reaction rate constant being 0.23 M−1 min−1, 18.77 kJ/mol, and 6.32 M−1 min−1, respectively. The fuel properties of the produced biodiesel and bio-petro-diesel blends were good, comparable to international standards and the marketed Egyptian petro-diesel.

Sugar derived hydrochar catalysts for enhanced biodiesel production via esterification

Sugars and sugar alcohols are renewable raw materials which can be used for char production. Their acid-catalyzed hydro-carbonization results in the formation of carbon materials with acidic functional groups on the surface, which makes them suitable to be used as heterogeneous catalysts in esterification reactions. Hydrochars materials were prepared by low-temperature slow carbonization of glycerol, xylitol, sucrose, and glucose in the presence of different amounts of H2SO4 (mass ratios from 1 to 4). The hydrochars were extensively characterized and tested in the methanolysis reaction of oleic acid. All the carbon materials were amorphous with features of polyaromatic sheets with hydroxyl (–OH), carboxylic acid (–COOH), and sulfonic (−SO3H) functional groups. The effect of the oleic acid water content on catalytic performance was studied, showing a strong inhibition effect due to the hygroscopic character of catalysts induced by sulfonic groups and other surface groups with oxygen. Under the conditions evaluated (5 % wt. of catalyst, methanol/oleic acid = 9 M ratio, methanol reflux temperature) the sucrose-derived catalyst prepared with the highest H2SO4 content showed the best performance, leading to methyl oleate yield > 90 % after 2 h of reaction, which is only achieved by the majority of analogous catalysts reported in the literature after 4 to 8 h of reaction. The data showed that there is a correlation between the methyl ester yield and the graphitization of the catalyst, as this makes the catalyst more hydrophobic, which is an advantage in esterification catalysts.

Liquid-Liquid Equilibrium of Sesame Fatty Acid (Ethyl and Methyl) Ester + Glycerol + Ethanol/Methanol Mixtures at Different Temperatures.

This study aimed to investigate the liquid-liquid equilibrium (LLE) behavior of sesame fatty acid ethyl ester (FAEE) and methyl ester (FAME) in combination with glycerol and the co-solvents ethanol and methanol. FAEE and FAME were produced through the transesterification of mechanically extracted and purified sesame oil, using potassium hydroxide (KOH) as a homogeneous base catalyst. The reactions were conducted in ethanol and methanol to produce FAEE and FAME, respectively. Post-reaction, the products were separated and purified, followed by an analysis of the LLE behavior at 313.15 K and 323.15 K under atmospheric pressure (101.3 kPa). The experimental process for the miscibility analysis utilized a jacketed glass cell adapted for this study. Miscibility limits or binodal curves were determined using the turbidity-point method. Tie lines were constructed by preparing mixtures of known concentrations within the two-phase region, which allowed the phases to separate after agitation. Samples from both phases were analyzed to determine their composition. This study revealed that higher temperatures promoted greater phase separation and enhanced the biodiesel purification process. The NRTL model effectively correlated the activity coefficients with the experimental data, showing good agreement, with a root-mean-square deviation of 3.5%. Additionally, the data quality was validated using Marcilla's method, which yielded an R2 value close to 1. Attraction factors and distribution coefficients were also calculated to evaluate the efficiency of the co-solvents as extraction agents. The findings indicated higher selectivity for methanol than for ethanol, with varying degrees of distribution among the co-solvents. These results offer significant insights into enhancing biodiesel production processes by considering the effects of co-solvents on the LLE properties of mixtures, ultimately contributing to more efficient and cost-effective biodiesel production.

RSM and ANN methodologies in modeling the enhanced biodiesel production using novel protic ionic liquid anchored on g-C3N4@Fe3O4 nanohybrid

Herin, a new nanohybrid acid catalyst was fabricated for the efficient biodiesel production. At the first, magnetic porous nanosheets of graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4@Fe3O4) was prepared and then functionalized with sulfonic acid. Next, the preparation of the catalyst was completed by mixing this surface modified support with n-methyl imidazolium butyl sulfonate zwitterion to achieve non-covalent immobilized acidic ionic liquid on g-C3N4@Fe3O4 support. The catalyst underwent characterization through various techniques such as 1H and 13C NMR, FTIR, SEM, TEM, TGA, EDX and BET which revealing that the magnetic support loaded acidic ionic liquids via a robust charge interaction effect enabling the one-pot production of biodiesel from low-quality oils. Furthermore, the catalyst could be simply recovered using a permanent magnet and reused multiple times without a significant decline in catalytic activity. Consequently, the solid catalyst based on ionic liquids holds promise for the sustainable and eco-friendly production of biodiesel from low-quality oils. Furthermore, Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) were used to model the yield and various process parameters. The findings underscore the enhanced predictive capabilities of ANN in comparison to RSM.

Enhanced Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil Using Potash-Enriched Natural Base Catalyst

The transesterification reaction of waste cooking oil with methanol using a sugar apple peel ash catalyst has been reported. Under optimized conditions, the reaction of the oil with methanol in a molar ratio of 1:10, in the presence of a catalyst (2 g) at 60 °C temperature offered a 94.5% yield of biodiesel within 120 min. The heterogeneous catalyst was developed via a straightforward calcination process using fruit processing industry waste peels of sugar apples. The characterization of the catalyst by FTIR, EDS, SEM, XRD, N2 sorption, and XRF analysis revealed a higher concentration of potassium species which is possibly responsible for the promotion of the transesterification reaction more efficiently. This approach offers cost competitiveness, reusability of the catalyst, simplicity of operation, and high biodiesel yields. This study underscores the potential of utilizing waste materials for sustainable biodiesel production, contributing to environmental preservation and economic viability.

Magnesium Oxide (MgO) as a Sustainable Catalyst for Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil: A Comparative Study with KOH

The present study investigates the efficiency of magnesium oxide (MgO) as a heterogeneous catalyst in the production of biodiesel from waste cooking oil (WCO), putting an emphasis on its environmental benefits, cost-effectiveness, and operational efficacy. Through a series of experiments, we optimized the reaction conditions, including catalyst concentration, reaction temperature, and ethanol to WCO molar ratio, to achieve a high biodiesel yield. The results indicate that an optimal MgO concentration of 3 wt%, a reaction temperature of 65 °C, and a molar ratio of 9:1 result in the highest biodiesel production efficiency. Additionally, MgO demonstrated significant reusability without a decrease in performance, underscoring its economic and environmental advantages. Comparative analysis revealed that MgO outperforms conventional KOH catalysts in terms of yield, purity, and sustainability. Our study suggests future research directions, including the optimization of MgO preparation methods and the exploration of co-catalyst systems to further enhance biodiesel production from WCO. This research contributes to the development of sustainable biodiesel production methods, aligning with global energy and environmental goals.

Enhancing Biodiesel Production: A Review of Microchannel Reactor Technologies

The depletion of fossil fuels, along with the environmental damages brought by their usage, calls for the development of a clean, sustainable and renewable source of energy. Biofuel, predominantly liquid biofuel such as biodiesel, is a promising alternative to fossil fuels, due to its compatible direct usage within the context of compression ignition engines. However, the industrial production of biodiesel is far from being energy and time efficient, which contributes to its high production cost. These inefficiencies are attributed to poor heat and mass transfer of the transesterification reaction. The utilisation of microchannel reactors is found to be excellent in escalating heat and mass transfer of the reactants, benefitting from their high surface area-to-volume ratio. The microchannel also intensifies the mixing of reactants via the reactor design, micromixers and the slug flow patterns within the reactor, thus enhancing the contact between reactants. Simulation studies have aided in the identification of mixing regimes within the microchannel reactors, induced by various reactor designs. In addition, microwave irradiation heating is found to enhance biodiesel production by localised superheating delivered directly to the reactants at a molecular level. This enables the reaction to begin much earlier, resulting in rapid biodiesel production. It is postulated that the synergy between microchannel reactors and microwave heating would catapult a pathway towards rapid and energy-efficient biodiesel production by enhancing heat and mass transfer between reactants.

Enhanced biodiesel production fromAnnona squamosaseed oil using Ni-doped CaO nanocatalyst: Process optimization and reaction kinetics

The present research was mainly focused on the production of biodiesel from Annona squamosa oil using a synthesized Ni-doped CaO nanocatalyst. The optimization of the transesterification reaction parameters was studied through response surface methodology. The highest biodiesel yield of 99.1% was achieved with the optimized conditions of 7.86% catalyst concentration, 442 RPM, 15.19:1 molar ratio of methanol to oil, reaction temperature of 55.8°C and reaction time of 63.3 min. The results obtained from reaction kinetics study showed a good fit with a first-order kinetic model. The activation energy and R2value were determined to be 53.7 kJ/mol and 0.90, respectively. The synthesized Ni-doped CaO nanocatalyst was characterized using Scanning Electron Microscope with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy which confirms the presence of nickel, calcium and oxygen. Also, the average size of the nanocatalyst was found to be 48.79 nm. The Fourier Transform–Infrared Spectroscopy results showed the occurrence of functional groups such as C-H and C = O bonds in the synthesized Ni-doped CaO nanocatalyst. The presence of fatty acid methyl esters in the produced biodiesel was analyzed through Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry analysis. The obtained results from the current study provides the possibility and insights for sustainable biodiesel production and a greener environment.

Enhancing Biodiesel Production from Nyamplung Oil: Kinetic Analysis of Transesterification via Electromagnetic Induction Heating

Enhancing Biodiesel Production from Nyamplung Oil: Kinetic Analysis of Transesterification via Electromagnetic Induction Heating

Utilizing Cs-TPA/Ce-KIT-6 solid-acid catalyst for enhanced biodiesel production from almond and amla oil feedstocks

This study focuses on the synthesis and characterization of Cs-tungstophosphoric acid/Ce-KIT-6 (Cs-TPA/CK), Cs-silicotungstic acid/Ce-KIT-6 (Cs-STA/CK), and Ni-Zn/Ce-KIT-6 (Ni-Zn/CK) catalysts for biodiesel production from almond and amla oil feedstocks. The synthesized catalysts underwent comprehensive characterization utilizing XRD, BET surface area analysis, SEM, and TEM techniques, confirming the successful incorporation of Ce3+, Cs-TPA, Cs-STA, and Ni-Zn units into the KIT-6 framework. Among the catalysts tested, Cs-TPA/CK exhibited the highest biodiesel conversion rates, reaching 98% for oleic acid and 96–98% for non-edible oils (almond and amla oil). Additionally, the recyclability of the catalysts was evaluated, demonstrating sustained catalytic activity for up to five cycles. These findings underscore the potential of Cs-TPA/CK as a highly efficient catalyst for biodiesel production from both edible and non-edible oil sources, with promising implications for sustainable energy production.

Optimization of Cultivation Conditions of Native Microalga Scenedesmus quadricauda and Evaluation of Lipids for Enhanced Biodiesel Production.

Optimization of Cultivation Conditions of Native Microalga Scenedesmus quadricauda and Evaluation of Lipids for Enhanced Biodiesel Production.

Impact of macronutrients and salinity stress on biomass and biochemical constituents in Monoraphidium braunii to enhance biodiesel production

Microalgal lipids are precursors to the production of biodiesel, as well as a source of valuable dietary components in the biotechnological industries. So, this study aimed to assess the effects of nutritional (nitrogen, and phosphorus) starvations and salinity stress (NaCl) on the biomass, lipid content, fatty acids profile, and predicted biodiesel properties of green microalga Monoraphidium braunii. The results showed that biomass, biomass productivity, and photosynthetic pigment contents (Chl. a, b, and carotenoids) of M. braunii were markedly decreased by nitrogen and phosphorus depletion and recorded the maximum values in cultures treated with full of N and P concentrations (control, 100%). These parameters were considerably increased at the low salinity level (up to 150 mM NaCl), while an increasing salinity level (up to 250 mM NaCl) reduces the biomass, its productivity, and pigment contents. Nutritional limitations and salt stress (NaCl) resulted in significantly enhanced accumulation of lipid and productivity of M. braunii, which represented more than twofold of the control. Furthermore, these conditions have enhanced the profile of fatty acid and biodiesel quality-related parameters. The current study exposed strategies to improve M. braunii lipid productivity for biodiesel production on a small scale in vitro in terms of fuel quality under low nutrients and salinity stress.

Response surface methodology for optimization of biodiesel production by the Penicillium commune NRC 2016 and its mutants

AbstractWith increasing energy requirements and limited fuel resources, finding cheap renewable sources is essential. The objective of our current economic study is to enhance biodiesel production from the Penicillium commune, NRC 2016. Four mutagenic agents were used to improve the lipid production from P. commune NRC 2016: gamma radiation, ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS), ethidium bromide (Et Br), and sodium azide (NaN3). The Inter-Simple-Simplece Repeats molecular (ISSR) marker was used to compare the wild type of P. commune NRC 2016 and the resulting mutants. The results showed a major difference between the wild type and its mutants. Response surface methodology was used to optimize the culture conditions for lipid production by P. commune NRC 2016, and the induced mutants used hydrolysate that was produced from bagasse using Bacillus cereus 3SME. The maximum lipid content (g/l) for P. commune NRC 2016, P. commune NRC 2016–1, P. commune NRC 2016–2, and P. commune NRC 2016–3 were 2.01, 2.55, 1.71, and 2.27, respectively. Gas chromatographic analysis was used for biodiesel produced from P. commune NRC 2016 wild type, and its mutants were mainly C16–C18, which is suitable for transesterification. The physical properties, such as density, viscosity, cloud point, pour point, and cetane number, of the biodiesel from P. commune NRC 2016 and its mutants were similar to those of standard biodiesel and could be applied on a large scale. The biodiesels produced through P. commune NRC 2016 and its mutants can be utilized on a broad scale as eco-friendly products obtained from a low-cost carbon source.

Enhancing biodiesel production in stirred tank reactors through the implementation of a baffle array: Creating a reactor with unique characteristics

This study focuses on enhancing biodiesel production from expired refined palm oil by implementing baffle arrays with a suitable dimension ratio into a conventional stirred tank reactor. This reactor functions as a deglycerolizing reactor at low agitation speeds (250 rpm), or an intensive mixing at high agitation speeds (500 rpm). With these unique characteristics, this reactor outperformed its traditional counterparts and could produce biodiesel via a simplified, single-step transesterification process. The optimal reaction condition was 1:6 oil to MeOH ratio, 1.0 wt% KOCH3, 30-minute reaction time and 60 °C reaction temperature. Ester content of 98.13 wt% was obtained in the deglycerolizing reactor and 98.54 wt% in the intensive mixing reactor with the number of baffles of 16. This achievement represents a 50 % reaction time reduction and 30 % reactor cost reduction compared to the conventional reactor with similar reaction condition and production capability.

Use microalgae to treat coke wastewater for producing biofuel: Influence of phenol on photosynthetic properties and intracellular components of microalgae

Using microalgae to treat coking wastewater has important application prospects and environmental significance. Previous studies have suggested that phycoremediation of pollutants from coking wastewater is feasible and can potentially enhance biodiesel production. This work investigates the effects of phenol in coking wastewater on C. pyrenoidosa and S. obliquus growth, photosynthesis activity, and intracellular components. The results indicated that when the phenol concentration was lower than 300 mg L−1, both microalgae maintained good photosynthetic and physiological activity, with a maximum quantum yield potential ranging from 0.6 to 0.7. At the phenol concentration of 300 mg L−1, the biomass of C. pyrenoidosa was 2.4 times that of the control group. For S. obliquus, at the phenol concentration of 150 mg L−1, the biomass was approximately 0.85 g L−1, which increased by 68% than that of the control group (0.58 g L−1). The lipid content in both microalgae increased with the phenol concentrations, with the maximum content exceeding 40%. The optimal phenol concentrations for C. pyrenoidosa and S. obliquus growth were determined to be 246.18 and 152.73 mg L−1, respectively, based on a developed kinetic model. This work contributes to further elucidating the effects of phenol on microalgae growth, photosynthesis, and intracellular components, and suggests that using microalgae to treat phenol-containing coking wastewater for producing biofuel is not only environmentally friendly but also holds significant energy promise.