English Sparrow Research Articles

100 years ago in the American Ornithologists’ Union

The year 1923 marked the 40th anniversary of the American Ornithologists’ Union and its 41st annual meeting. When counting the 1887 meetings held at the Boston Society of Natural History, which included a trip to see William Brewster’s Collection at Harvard’s Museum of Comparative Zoology, it was the 9th held in Cambridge, Massachusetts. As earlier, when the AOU met in Cambridge, attendees stayed in Boston. In 1923, they lodged at Boston’s renowned Copley Square Hotel in Back Bay on Huntington Avenue and Exeter Street. The hotel became a confluence for attendees (Palmer 1924) who traveled approximately 5 miles to activities in Cambridge. To avoid the congestion on Harvard Bridge connecting Back Bay and Cambridge, many may have made the trek via the relatively new technology of subway or streetcar (O’Connell 2013). Business meetings convened Monday, October 8. Two council meetings, one in the morning and the other early afternoon, were held at 7 Kirkland Street in Cambridge, home of Charles F. Batchelder (1856–1954), sole Founder among Fellows in attendance that year. Meetings of Fellows and Members were held late that afternoon and evening at the Colonial Club (current site of Harvard’s Faculty Club) at 20 Quincy Street. The Meetings of Fellows had 24 attending due to the death of Founder Walter Bradford Barrows (1855–1923), respected for his broad knowledge as a general naturalist and ornithologist (Fisher 1925). Barrows had enjoyed a diverse career, with positions as instructor and professor at colleges and universities in Argentina and the U.S., including Wesleyan and Michigan State University. He also held positions with the Biological Survey in the Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy from 1886 until 1894 and is best known for his publications, “The English Sparrow in North America” and “Michigan Bird Life”.

When I began to dig

When I began to dig Martha Silano (bio) this is what I found: from the Latin, vertere,to turn, from the Lithuanian, versti, to overturn, from the Sanskrit, vartate, he turns. Vers, fers:turning, turning and bending, having planted a length of beans or corn, having reached a furrow'send. Like a plowman, versing, this breaking up of sod, this fashioning into tidy rows, helping the singersrecall their lines. When the need to memorize disappeared, verse remained like the typewriter keysspelling QWERTY, slowing the typist down. When I began to dig, I found turn, turn back, be turned, convert, transform,be changed. From wert: to wind, its cognate weard (turned toward). When I began to dig I unearthedwyrd (destiny, fate), found what befalls one, reached down, pulled up Turn! Turn! Turn! A Pete Seeger tune,a psalm. From Slovenia to Wales, from Greece to Ireland: turn, turn, stir, ladle, become. This verse,this versus, likened to conversion, a breather, a fresh start. Poet, like a plowman in a fieldwith his furrowed words, looking for a good excuse to put up his brow, wipe his feet, reward herselffor making it this far. When I dug I found porridge, bread (barley and rye), lentils, peas, eggs. Not muchmeat. Small amount of vegetables and fruit. I found [End Page 54] oats; I found ale. What the digging revealedwas a single word meaning destiny and clean slate, befalling fate yoked to the notion of free will.To translate, become someone or something else. In that plowman's act, an apparent contradictionas great as any yin and yang, koan-like conundrum, that when we don binoculars to study a commonword, English sparrow of the lexicon, we find the link between poetry and confrontations large and small—tournaments, showdowns, battles—between a book of poems, and Sunday's nail-biting match-upbetween the Seahawks and the Panthers. Versus, a word connecting whatever force, power, or godhanded Marshawn Lynch his strength, his knack for eluding the tackle, his Shakespearean grace,and the task of the poet: to bury the weeds; to disembalm the knotted, entwining roots,the richest loam. To make, of the oldest question, a song: are we free or are we not? [End Page 55] Martha Silano Martha Silano is the author of What the Truth Tastes Like (Two Sylvias Press, 2015), Reckless Lovely (Saturnalia Books, 2014), The Little Office of the Immaculate Conception (Saturnalia Books, 2011), Blue Positive (Steel Toe Books, 2006), and, with Kelli Russell Agodon, The Daily Poet: Day-by-Day Prompts for Your Writing Practice (Two Sylvias Press, 2013). Her poems have appeared in Poetry, Paris Review, American Poetry Review, AGNI, and Best American Poetry, among others. She edits the Seattle-based journal Crab Creek Review and teaches at Bellevue College. Copyright © 2017 Middlebury College Publications

Reciprocal inhibition of in vitro substrate movement into avian skeletal muscle

Plasma glucose and ketone concentrations are much higher in birds than in humans and birds exhibit resistance to insulin-mediated glucose uptake into muscle. Therefore, birds may offer a model in which to examine the effects of high plasma glucose and free fatty acid (FFA) concentrations on substrate preference. The present study examined the uptake of radiolabeled oleic acid (OA; C18:1) and radiolabeled glucose by skeletal muscle isolated from the forewing of English sparrows (Passer domesticus). In dose–response studies, unlabeled glucose and OA (20mM each) inhibited the uptake of their respective radiolabeled counterparts. To examine the effects of glucose on OA uptake, muscles were incubated for 60min in a buffer containing 20mM glucose with the addition of radiolabeled OA. This level of glucose significantly decreased radiolabeled OA uptake by 36%. Using the same methodology, 20mM OA significantly decreased radiolabeled glucose transport by 49%. Comparing control values for glucose (0.952±0.04μM/mg muscle) and OA uptake (2.20±0.29μM/mg muscle), it is evident that OA is preferentially taken up by avian skeletal muscle. As FFAs provide a greater amount of energy per mole (146 ATP/OA) than carbohydrates (36 ATP/glucose), storing and utilizing fats may be more energy-efficient for birds. As studies in mammals have shown that FFAs may impair glucose uptake pathways, it is suspected that high FFA uptake by avian skeletal muscle may induce their notably lower glucose transport.

Mitochondrial function in sparrow pectoralis muscle

Flying birds couple a high daily energy turnover with double-digit millimolar blood glucose concentrations and insulin resistance. Unlike mammalian muscle, flight muscle predominantly relies on lipid oxidation during locomotion at high fractions of aerobic capacity, and birds outlive mammals of similar body mass by a factor of three or more. Despite these intriguing functional differences, few data are available comparing fuel oxidation and free radical production in avian and mammalian skeletal muscle mitochondria. Thus we isolated mitochondria from English sparrow pectoralis and rat mixed hindlimb muscles. Maximal O(2) consumption and net H(2)O(2) release were measured in the presence of several oxidative substrate combinations. Additionally, NAD- and FAD-linked electron transport chain (ETC) capacity was examined in sonicated mitochondria. Sparrow mitochondria oxidized palmitoyl-l-carnitine 1.9-fold faster than rat mitochondria and could not oxidize glycerol-3-phosphate, while both species oxidized pyruvate, glutamate and malate-aspartate shuttle substrates at similar rates. Net H(2)O(2) release was not significantly different between species and was highest when glycolytic substrates were oxidized. Sonicated sparrow mitochondria oxidized NADH and succinate over 1.8 times faster than rat mitochondria. The high ETC catalytic potential relative to matrix substrate dehydrogenases in sparrow mitochondria suggests a lower matrix redox potential is necessary to drive a given O(2) consumption rate. This may contribute to preferential reliance on lipid oxidation, which may result in lower in vivo reactive oxygen species production in birds compared with mammals.

Book review: A new encyclopedia for biological invasions

ISSN 1948‐6596 news and update book review A new encyclopedia for biological invasions Encyclopedia of biological invasions, by Daniel Simberloff and Marcel Rejmanek (editors) 2011, University of California Press, 792 pp. ISBN: 9780520264212 Price US$95 (Hardback or e‐book); http://www.ucpress.edu/ Despite existing in some form for many decades (Davis 2005), invasion ecology/biology is in many ways a nascent and emerging field, and is still en‐ gendering discussion regarding whether it indeed truly exists as a field or discipline in its own right, or is rather a particularly focused aspect of com‐ munity ecology or biogeography (e.g. Marris 2009, Pysek and Hulme 2009). As with many ecological disciplines, invasion ecology has seen fundamen‐ tal disagreements over aspects ranging from core definitions (including ‘invasion’ itself; Falk‐ Petersen et al. 2006, Ricciardi and Cohen 2007) to level of scientific objectivity (e.g. Larson 2007). The field is at a stage in its development where (1) dedicated journals exist (e.g. Biological Invasions) and there is a substantial number of academic articles published every year (for example a search of ‘invasive species’ in Web of Knowledge returns 1181 articles published in 2010 alone), 2) there is clear and significant international interest and action in relation to invasions and (3) an ex‐ tended peer community is involved in researching and managing the threat of invasive species, from world‐leading academics at research‐intensive universities to local government and conservation volunteers. The result of the burgeoning informa‐ tion and uneven levels of understanding and focus across the peer community is confusion and un‐ certainty, right from the fundamentals (what is an invasive species exactly, and why is it invasive?) to the specifics (what is the best technique for reduc‐ ing populations of Crassula helmsii in my pond, and how does that differ from managing spread in the local lake?). The time is ripe therefore for an encyclopaedia such as this one by Daniel Simber‐ loff and Marcel Rejmanek to form a baseline for future definitions and discussions. The book is one of University of California Press’ Encyclopedias of the Natural World series, and as with the other volumes has a wide range of entries that are effectively short essays or summa‐ ries of key topics relating (in this case) to biologi‐ cal invasions, without citations but with relevant further reading at the end. The entries vary in length from 1 to 8 pages, and often incorporate useful figures and occasionally tables. The book is impressively glossy (all figures are in full colour) and well presented, which is all the more remark‐ able considering the relatively modest price. The editors, Daniel Simberloff and Marcel Rejmanek, are leading invasion ecologists and are well quali‐ fied to compile such a text; this is reflected not just in the broad range of well‐selected topics that the volume includes (of which there are 153) but also the roll‐call of esteemed contributors that have supplied the entries (of which there are 197, many of them high‐profile international research‐ ers). The book is aimed not just at an academic audience, however, and the articles are written with the interested and educated general public in mind. The individual articles cover various aspects of invasions, ranging from particular attributes of invasive species and invaded ecosystems to im‐ pacts and management, interesting case studies and historical perspectives. Clearly it is not possi‐ ble to cover all of the entries in a review such as this, but I did find several articles especially inter‐ esting, particularly because they highlight the many socioecological factors that complicate our relationships with potentially problematic species. The entry on Xenophobia for example does an ex‐ cellent job of summarising how society’s relation‐ ship with non‐native species is constructed in cer‐ tain ways by the use of loaded terms or cultural metaphors, for example the negative personifica‐ tion of zebra mussels as ‘outlaws’ on the west coast of the US, or the badging of ‘harmful’ or ‘distasteful’ species with appellations that note their foreign status (Japanese knotweed, Chinese mitten crab, English sparrow and so on). As a starting point for a discussion of scientific objec‐ frontiers of biogeography 3.3, 2011 — © 2011 the authors; journal compilation © 2011 The International Biogeography Society

Pyruvate Sparing by Fatty Acid and Glutamate in Sparrow Skeletal Muscle Mitochondria

The ability of avian muscle mitochondria (MITO) to oxidize fatty acids is crucial as only lipid can provide the high energy density fuel required for flight. When exercising at ∼70-80% VO2max, a flying pigeon has an RQ of ∼.73, whereas a running rat has an RQ of ∼.96, indicating the bird is oxidizing primarily fat (FAT) for fuel while the rat is almost exclusively oxidizing carbohydrate (CHO). PURPOSE: To assess the control sensitivity of CHO and FAT oxidation in MITO isolated from avian skeletal muscle and examine fuel selection at the level of the mitochondrial matrix when multiple substrates are provided. METHODS: MITO were isolated from English sparrow pectoralis and rat mixed hindlimb muscles and the rate of oxygen consumption (Jo) at varying values of ΔGATP were assessed with either pyruvate (P) + malate (M) (CHO) or palmitoyl-l-carnitine (PC) + M (FAT) as substrates. ΔGATP was established by using the creatine kinase energetic clamp. The slope of ΔGATP:Jo was determined with each fuel. Next, sparrow MITO were incubated at ΔGATP = -13.0, -13.5, and -14.0 kcal/mol with P+M, P+ glutamate (G)+M, P+PC+M, G+PC+M, or P+G+PC+M as substrates. The steady state Jo and total O2 consumed were measured polarographically. Samples were taken just after MITO addition and ∼10.0 min later and fluorometrically assayed to determine P utilization. RESULTS: Sparrow MITO showed dramatic increases in Jo as ΔGATP decreased from -14.0 to -13.0 kcal/mol with both P+M and PC+M as substrates, whereas rat MITO only showed this relationship with P+M. Specifically, the slope of the ΔGATP:Jo relationship, a measure of the elasticity of oxidative flux to ΔGATP, is 7 fold greater with CHO than with FAT in rat MITO, whereas in sparrow MITO, CHO and FAT oxidation provide identical control sensitivity. This indicates sparrow MITO are able to fuel high ATP turnover rates with FAT or CHO as fuel, while in rat MITO only CHO oxidation can fuel high turnover rates, which is consistent with the mammalian requirement to oxidize CHO during exercise at and above moderate intensities. Substrate competition assays indicate, at the level of the mitochondrial matrix, either PC or G addition to P+M results in more than a 50% decrease in the rate of P utilization over the three values of ΔGATP examined, with more pronounced suppression as flux decreased and energy state increased. Adding G+PC to P+M oxidation decreased P utilization further. CONCLUSIONS: Avian MITO, at the level of the matrix, are able to maintain a high ATP turnover rate with FAT as fuel and preferentially oxidize PC (FAT) and/or G over P (CHO), possibly due to PDH inhibition by matrix redox potential and/or inhibition due to acetyl-CoA. Supported by NSF (IBN-0116997).

Mitochondrial function in sparrow pectoralis muscle

Birds represent an anomaly as they couple a long life span with a high metabolic rate, hyperglycemia, and insulin resistance. Despite the strong links between mitochondria (mito) and aging/longevity, no comprehensive investigation has assessed avian mitochondrial function. Mito were isolated from English sparrow pectoralis and rat mixed hindlimb muscles. Maximal O2 consumption (Jo) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production were measured in the presence of several oxidative substrates. NAD‐ and FAD‐linked electron transport chain (ETC) capacity was examined in sonicated mito. Compared to rat, sparrow muscle mito oxidize palmitoyl‐l‐carnitine 1.9‐fold faster (211.9 ± 25.6 vs 396.3 ± 36.4 nmol/mg/min), cannot oxidize glycerol‐3‐phosphate, and produce 60% less ROS with complex II linked substrates and both cytosolic‐mitochondrial electron shuttles. Despite similar maximal Jo for the majority of substrates, sonicated sparrow mito oxidize NADH and succinate 3‐ to 5‐fold faster than rat mito, 1809.34 ± 272.05 vs. 647.53 ± 73.07 and 416.93 ± 49.12 vs. 86.83 ± 9.23 nmol/mg/min, respectively. High ETC catalytic potential relative to matrix substrate dehydrogenases in sparrow mito suggests lower matrix redox potential necessary to drive a given O2 consumption rate, which may contribute to the lower ROS production observed in birds compared to mammals. Research supported by a grant from the NSF (IBN‐0116997).

Glucose transporter expression in English sparrows ( Passer domesticus)

Patterns of glucose transporter expression have been well-characterized in mammals. However, data for birds is currently restricted to isolated cells, domestic chickens and chicks, and ducklings. Therefore, in the present study, protein and gene expression of various glucose transporters (GLUTs) in English sparrow extensor digitorum communis, gastrocnemius and pectoralis muscles as well as heart, kidney, and brain tissues were examined. The hypothesis is that the expression pattern of avian GLUTs differs from mammals to maintain the high plasma glucose levels of birds and insulin insensitivity. Our studies failed to identify a GLUT4-like insulin responsive transporter in sparrows. GLUT1 gene expression was identified in all tissues examined and shares 88% homology with chicken and 84% homology with human GLUT1. Compared to the rat control, GLUT1 immunostaining of sparrow extensor digitorum communis muscle was weak and appeared to be localized to blood vessels whereas immunostaining of gastrocnemius muscles was comparable to rat muscle controls. Gene expression of GLUT3 was identified in all tissues examined and shares 90% gene sequence homology with chicken embryonic fibroblast and 75% homology with human GLUT3. Protein expression of GLUT3 was not determined as an avian antibody is not available. Moreover, the C-terminus of the mammalian GLUT3 transporter, against which antibodies are typically designed, differs significantly among species. The predominant difference of chicken and sparrow GLUT expression patterns from that of mammals is the lack of an avian GLUT4. The absence of this insulin responsive GLUT in birds may be a contributing factor to the observed high blood glucose levels and insulin insensitivity.

Oleic acid uptake by in vitro English sparrow skeletal muscle

Studies of prolonged avian flight have shown it to require large amounts of energy supplied mainly by free fatty acids (FFA). In the present study, the high levels of plasma ketone bodies found in sparrows (2.58 mmol l(-1)) are supportive of the use of fatty acids for flight. To determine the nature of fatty acid (oleic acid, OA) uptake, various pharmacological agents were used. The uptake of OA was examined using the extensor digitorum communis (EDC) muscle of English sparrows incubated in vitro. Initial studies demonstrated that radiolabeled OA uptake decreased in the presence of increasing unlabeled OA, suggesting that uptake occurred by a facilitative transport process. To further characterize OA uptake, EDC muscles were incubated with either: insulin (2 ng ml(-1)), insulin-like growth factor isoform-1 (IGF-I; 48 ng ml(-1)), 5'-Aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-beta-D-ribofuranoside (AICAR; 2 mmol) or caffeine (5 mmol). Insulin, but not IGF-I, significantly increased OA uptake by avian EDC (P < 0.01). Caffeine and AICAR were ineffective at increasing OA uptake. A specific inhibitor of FFA transport by fatty acid transporters (FAT/CD36), sulfo-N-succinimidyl oleate (SSO; 500 micromoles), significantly decreased OA uptake at 2.5 min. The effectiveness of SSO suggests that a FAT/CD36-like protein is expressed in avian tissues. As uptake of OA was not completely blocked by SSO, it is likely that other mechanisms for FFA movement across membranes, such as diffusion, may be present.

Skeletal muscle fiber composition of the English sparrow ( Passer domesticus)

Substrate utilization by English sparrow skeletal muscle has been extensively studied in our lab. However, there are few published studies on the muscle fiber composition of English sparrow wing and gastrocnemius muscles. The objective of the present study was to examine the fiber type composition of a variety of muscles in the English sparrow. The classification of a muscle fiber as fast glycolytic, slow oxidative, or fast oxidative glycolytic provides insight into the physiological function of muscles. Therefore, we completed mATPase and NADH stains on four muscles of the sparrow wing, as well as the gastrocnemius muscle, to characterize these muscle fiber types. Results show that the fibers of extensor digitorum communis, extensor metacarpi ulnaris, and extensor metacarpi radialis are homogeneous fast oxidative. The fibers of the supinator are homogeneous fast oxidative in 62.5% of samples, and heterogeneous (45.2% fast oxidative, 54.8% fast nonoxidative) in 37.5% of samples. Whereas the gastrocnemius muscle fibers are heterogeneous (10% fast oxidative, 64% fast nonoxidative, 26% slow oxidative) in all muscles examined.

Eastenders Go West: English Sparrows, Immigrants, and the Nature of Fear

The Tortilla Curtain (1995), a novel by T. Coraghessan Boyle, juxtaposes the existence of southern California's affluent whites and non-white underclass by relating the stories of two couples whose lives become irrevocably entangled following a fateful automobile accident. The period flavour derives from racial tensions that culminated in the Los Angeles riots of 1992 and the passage, two years later, of Proposition 187, a package of prohibitive measures to curb the influx of “undocumented” immigrants from Mexico. Delaney Mossbacher, the book's main character, is a freelance nature writer with orthodox liberal views – a caricatured Sierra Club member. He contributes a monthly, Annie Dillard-esque nature column (“Pilgrim at Topanga Creek”) to an outdoor magazine. He lives in an upscale hilltop community designed in impeccable Spanish mission style – the product of white flight – apparently safe from the Mexican hordes that have broken through the border (the brittle “tortilla curtain” of the novel's title) and are overrunning the flatlands.

The functional morphology of the english sparrow cecum

As birds do not have a urinary bladder, the kidneys and lower gastrointestinal tract must function in concert to maintain fluid and electrolyte homeostasis. In birds, urine is conveyed to the cloaca, and moved by reverse peristalsis into the colon and digestive ceca. Digestive ceca have been well studied for non-passerine birds and have been shown to absorb substrates and water. The ceca of passerine birds have been suggested to be non-functional because of their small size. The present study was undertaken to examine the morphology and cytochemistry of the small ceca of the English sparrow ( Passer domesticus). Three-dimensional reconstruction of the ceca from serially sectioned tissue showed these organs to have a central channel with a large number of side channels. Electron micrographs indicated that all of the channels are lined by epithelial cells with a very dense microvillus brush border as well as a region densely packed with mitochondria just below the brush border. Specific staining for Na +, K +-ATPase indicated the enzyme to be localized to the brush border. Quantification of Na +, K +-ATPase activity showed it to be comparable to the coprodeum of domestic fowl. The data suggest that the small ceca of passerine birds may function in fluid and electrolyte homeostasis.

Glucose transport by english sparrow (Passer domesticus) skeletal muscle: Have we been chirping up the wrong tree?

Glucose uptake by mammalian skeletal muscle has been extensively covered in the literature, whereas the uptake of glucose by avian skeletal muscle has yet to be examined. As skeletal muscle provides the majority of postprandial glucose uptake in mammals, this study was designed to characterize the glucose transport mechanisms and glycogen content of avian skeletal muscle. In addition, plasma glucose levels were measured. English sparrow extensor digitorum communis (EDC) skeletal muscles were used for this study to quantify in vitro radiolabeled-glucose uptake. Uptake of labeled glucose was shown to decrease in the presence of increasing unlabeled glucose and was maximal by 60 minutes of incubation. Various agents known to increase glucose transport in mammalian tissues, via the insulin and contraction-responsive pathways, were used to manipulate and characterize in vitro transport in birds. The typical effectors of the mammalian insulin pathway, insulin (2 ng/ml) and insulin-like growth factor-1 (48 ng/ml), did not increase skeletal muscle glucose transport. Likewise, inducers of the mammalian contraction-responsive pathway had no effect on glucose transport by in vitro avian skeletal muscle (5 mM caffeine, 2 mM AICAR (5'-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-b-D-ribofuranoside). Interestingly, 200 microM phloretin, an agent used to block glucose transport proteins, significantly inhibited its uptake (P<0.001). These results suggest that a glucose transporter is responsible for glucose uptake by avian skeletal muscle, albeit at unexpectedly low levels, considering the high plasma glucose concentrations (265.9+/-53.5 mg/dl) and low skeletal muscle glycogen content (9.1+/-4.11 nM glucose/mg) of English sparrows.

“Of Avians and Indigenes”: Preliminary Notes on the Orientalization of the New World Native and Natured Others

“Of Avians and Indigenes” combines colonial discourse theory and ecocriticism to demonstrate how the New World bird and the New World “Indian” have been similarly othered in the discourse of Western imperialism. As a result, the Passenger Pigeon and many Native American tribes have suffered a similar fate: extinction. But via the ironic co-evolutionary history of the native House Finch and the introduced English Sparrow – and spanning American literature from John James Audubon to Joy Harjo – the author offers a Native reading of this colonization, through which both avians and indigenes “speak back” against the onslaught of Euro-American ideology, as a veritable “return of the Native.”

Prevalence of Salmonella spp in selected birds captured on California dairies.

To determine the prevalence of Salmonella spp in wild birds commonly found on California dairies. Prospective study. 7 selected species of birds were captured on 9 dairies in Kings and Tulare counties, California. Birds were captured (using traps and nets) and euthanatized, and the entire gastrointestinal tract was removed. Contents of the gastrointestinal tract were subjected to culture for Salmonella spp. 892 birds were captured, and Salmonella spp were isolated from 22 birds. The prevalence by dairy ranged from 0.7 to 16.7%, whereas the prevalence by bird species ranged from 1.2 to 3.2%. Cowbirds and English sparrows had the highest prevalence of Salmonella organisms. Five serotypes of Salmonella organisms were isolated, including Meleagridis, Montevideo, Muenster, Typhimurium, and an untyped serotype. On the basis of our findings, birds that commonly inhabit California dairies harbor Salmonella organisms. However, because of the low prevalence of Salmonella organisms in birds and the Salmonella serotypes isolated, birds are not important reservoirs of Salmonella organisms on California dairies.

Organogenesis of the Harderian gland: a comparative survey.

Although research interest in the Harderian gland (HG) has increased during the last few years, only a small amount of information exists about its organogenesis. In mouse the HG appears in the posterior part of eye region, in the form of nonluminated tubules between the sixteenth and eighteenth days of gestation. At birth it is still not differentiated histologically. In birds the HG originates from the conjunctival epithelium at a late embryonic stage. In the English sparrow, Passer domesticus (incubation period of about 13 days), it appears between the seventh and the eighth days of incubation. In the chick embryo (incubation period of about 21 days) it originates between the eleventh and the twelfth days. Among reptiles the lizard Podarcis s. sicula has proved to be a useful model to clarify the embryological origin of the orbital glands since it possesses the anterior lacrimal gland contiguous to the HG in the medial corner of the orbit. The anlage of the orbital glands appears on about the twenty-second day of development (incubation period of about 43 days) in the form of a short tubule projecting from the conjunctival epithelium, at the time of development of the nictitating membrane. At this stage the mesenchymal cells surrounding the glandular blastema form a well-defined sac, later occupied by the orbital glands. From this stage until hatching the growth of the glandular blastema continues with the formation of acini which move posteriorly into the preformed mesenchymal sac. At the thirty-sixth day of development the more lateral acini differentiate into the HG. Only at the forty-first day do the more medial acini differentiate into the anterior lacrimal gland. At hatching the HG is fully differentiated. In anuran amphibia the primordium of the HG appears during the metamorphosis at the time of development of the nictitating membrane.

Machine Songs IV: The Menace of Mechanical Music

Sweeping across the country with the speed of a transient fashion in slang or Panama hats, political war cries or popular novels, comes now the mechanical device to sing for us a song or play for us a piano, in substitute for human skill, intelligence, and soul. Only by harking back to the day of the roller skate or the bicycle craze, when sports of admitted utility ran to extravagance and virtual madness, can we find a parallel to the way in which these ingenious instruments have invaded every community in the land. And if we turn from this comparison in pure mechanics to another which may fairly claim a similar proportion of music in its soul, we may observe the English sparrow, which, introduced and welcomed in all innocence, lost no time in multiplying itself to the dignity of a pest, to the destruction of numberless native song birds, and the invariable regret of those who did not stop to think in time. On a matter upon which I feel so deeply, and which I consider so far-reaching, I am quite willing to be reckoned an alarmist, admittedly swayed in part by personal interest, as well as by the impending harm to American musical art. I foresee a marked deterioration in American music and musical taste, an interruption in the musical development of the country, and a host of other injuries to music in its artistic manifestations, by virtue--or rather by vice--of the multiplication of the various music-reproducing machines. When I add to this that I myself and every other popular composer are victims of a serious infringement on our clear moral rights in our own work, I but offer a second reason why the facts and conditions should be made clear to everyone, alike in the interest of musical art and of fair play. It cannot be denied that the owners and inventors

Dirty Birds, Filthy Immigrants, and the English Sparrow War: Metaphorical Linkage in Constructing Social Problems

The role of metaphor in the construction of social problems has often been neglected. Yet we believe that the use of metaphorical linkage can help explain how social problems become defined. To explore the role of metaphorical linkage, we examine a controversy that shook the American ornithological world of the late 19th century: The Great English Sparrow War. English sparrows were originally imported to the major American cities of the East, in the early 1850s, to control the infestation of trees by dropworms. These birds adapted successfully, and by the mid‐1870s they began to be perceived as a menace to the American ecosystem. As a consequence, a vigorous debate began as to their usefulness or harmfulness, which often exceeded the bounds of scientific discourse. We argue that this controversy over the English sparrow was linked to the controversy over “the new immigration.” A post‐bellum America faced the task of rebuilding its moral boundaries after the disruption of the Civil War and in the face of millions of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe and the Orient. The opponents of the English sparrow drew their imagery from the nativism (anti‐foreignism) of the day. They defined the bird as: (1) a foreigner, (2) that competes unfairly with native birds, (3) that has an immoral character, and (4) that needs to be eliminated from the American community of birds. Examining the metaphorical linkages among public concerns of the same period, we suggest, is a fruitful way of examining social problems.

Reproductive Patterns of Five Plethodontid Salamanders from the Ouachita Mountains

ABBOTT, I., L. K. ABBOTT, AND P. R. GRANT. 1975. Seed selection and handling ability of four species of Darwin's finches. Condor, 77:332-335. EMLEN, J. M. 1966. The role of time and energy in food preference. Amer. Nat., 100:611-617. HESPENHEIDE, H. A. 1966. The selection of seed size by finches. Wilson Bull., 78:191-197. KEAR, J. 1962. Food selection in finches with special references to interspecific differences. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 138:163-204. KENDEIGH, S. C. 1949. Effect of temperature and season on the energy resources of the English sparrow. Auk, 66:113-127. MACARTHUR, R. H., AND E. R. PIANKA. 1966. On the optimal use of a patchy environment. Amer. Nat., 100:603-609. PYKE, G. H., H. R. PULLIAM, AND E. L. CHARNOV. 1977. Optimal foraging: a selective review of theory and tests. Quart. Rev. Biol., 52:137-154. REAL, L., J. OTT, AND E. SILVERFINE. 1982. On the tradeoff between the mean and the variance in for-

Peeling Away the Dull Gray Layers

Do you remember the first time you really looked at a mud dauber's nest? A baby's hand? A glass of water? Do you remember the first time you really heard the wood thrush singing amidst all the lovely sights and sounds of a forest at sunset? Do you remember the first time you really looked at a dandelionor is that a thrill still due you? Do you remember the first time you were struck by the aesthetic beauty of the idea of industrial melanism or DNA coding? Were these discoveries recent enough so that they have not been formalized, squeezed, and packaged into a teaching technology? Do you still feel the excitement and joy of that moment? One of the saddest facts of life is that as we grow up, we so often lose that innocent wonder of childhood. Familiarity and daily exposure rob us of the fresh joy of discovery. It is too bad, for without wonder, life is dull stuff indeed. The biology teacher who still cherishes a sense of wonder at the world and is still anxious to probe each new mystery is fortunate. This precious gift must be protected and nourished if teachers are not to destroy their own awed excitement and having lost it, destroy it in the students entrusted to them. But many forces threaten it. It is sad to think how much is left out of biology teaching because one cannot test for it and grade it and fail or promote on the basis of the amount of it acquired. It is sad to think how many things are selected to be passed on to students as part of our cultural heritage just because these things lend themselves to suitable test questions. We lose so many opportunities for dealing with the real substance of biology because we cannot test for it, yet tests and grades and this whole dessicating apparatus seem to be a burden we must bearat least until someone finds another way to coerce reluctant students to learn and to reward the student who beats out the others by acquiring more facts. Tests, competition, grades, and other forms of coercion are like a quarrelsome spouse: you can't live with them and you can't live without them. It almost seems as though we have to come to a daily accommodation with them. Still we must salvage what we can of our first joyous rapture. Until we can find better teaching techniques, we will have to do our best to preserve the childlike wonder and, cherishing it ourselves, pass it on afresh to a new generation of students unsated by dull familiarity. Some teachers are able to do this. Students whose teachers still find this world exciting are fortunate indeed. These young people find the world more exciting and seem to recognize the privilege they enjoy. They also benefit by having teachers who recognize how lucky they are to work with young people and to learn from them as they teach. This sharing of discovery and insight is a fountain of youth that surely must be the handsomest fringe benefit of teaching. How many people, trudging from day to day toward retirement, have this chance that teachers enjoy? Not many. Pity the poor biology teacher who has become so jaded with recitation of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase as to take for granted that the intricate dance of nuclear division is ever accomplished successfully and that in generations of ancestors it has been accomplished with such perfection that we exist at all. Wonder is not always a product of our ignorance; we often lack the knowledge required to wonder. Stripping away each layer of our ignorance, we find that even the most familiar thing-a pinch of soil, an English sparrow, a fallen leafis a thing of staggering beauty and wonder. Perhaps this is one of the biggest responsibilities of the biology teacher: to discover the extraordinary in what we have come to think ordinary, to peel away the dull gray layers, and to give students a look at the exciting stuff inside. We biology teachers must not let the essence escape with the dregs. Without wonder all we have left is the recitation of facts and the assignment of grades. We must find a way to keep our own sense of wonder and to convey to those volatile, troublesome, winsome, promising young people that this world is worth knowing.