English Medium Instruction Classrooms Research Articles

Academic Vocabulary Learning in EMI Classrooms: Challenges and Strategies

This study investigates English as a Second Language (ESL) learners’ challenges in understanding academic science vocabulary in Malaysian secondary schools’ English-medium instruction (EMI) classrooms. Based on cognitive load theory, the research explores ESL learners’ strategies to acquire scientific terminology and manage the associated cognitive difficulties. Previous research on EMI across different subjects has often overlooked the specific hurdles presented by technical terms in the scientific vocabulary, creating a knowledge gap that impedes the development of effective teaching methods for science educators in EMI settings. In response, the study adopts a two-stage qualitative design, commencing with an online survey involving 103 participants, followed by group interviews with individuals from diverse linguistic backgrounds. The findings indicate that ESL learners in EMI science classrooms encounter significant obstacles due to unfamiliar scientific terminology, abstract concepts, and limited prior exposure to the subject matter. This results in a high cognitive load that inhibits comprehension. Nevertheless, the research identifies various vocabulary learning strategies students employ, including contextual clues and active engagement with scientific vocabulary within relevant contexts. These findings underscore the need for more inclusive learning environments supporting vocabulary development for ESL learners in EMI settings. Recommendations encompass creating instructional materials featuring clear and concise language and integrating scaffolding strategies to simplify complex scientific terms. This comprehensive approach has the potential to facilitate successful vocabulary development and enhance the overall learning experience for ESL learners in EMI science classrooms.

Ideologies of teachers and students towards meso-level English-medium instruction policy and translanguaging in the STEM classroom at a Malaysian university

Abstract English medium instruction (EMI) as a language policy in higher education is based on monolingual conceptions and limits the use of the full linguistic repertoire of bilinguals/multilinguals in the university classroom. Informed by the constructs of language ideology (Spolsky, Bernard. 2009. Language management. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press), translanguaging (Li, Wei. 2018. Translanguaging as a practical theory of language. Applied Linguistics 39(1). 9–30) and pedagogical translanguaging (Creese, Angela & Adrian Blackledge. 2010. Translanguaging in the bilingual classroom: A pedagogy for learning and teaching? The Modern Language Journal 94(1). 103–115), this case study aimed to examine the ideologies held by micro-level stakeholders (i.e., teachers and students) towards institutional English-only EMI policy, translanguaging, and the significance and scope of pedagogical translanguaging in EMI classrooms. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with six teachers and 10 students at a public research university in Malaysia. Also collected were a variety of publicly accessible institutional documents, including the focal university’s programme brochures, promotional materials and policy statements on its website. Analyses of the interviews and documents revealed that although EMI was officially adopted in the programmes, both teachers and students advocated for translanguaging and underscored its important role in the transmission of new information, effective communication, and scientific meaning-making. In light of these findings, the study concludes that an inclusive language policy is required that allows teachers and students to access all their linguistic resources.

Teaching note-taking in EMI: an experimental study in Economics and Business Administration

Abstract Learning to take effective notes is particularly difficult for non-English-native university students enrolled on English Medium Instruction (EMI) courses. However, time and cost constraints mean that many universities provide no support in English for academic purposes or academic skills. One solution to this problem would be to work closely with subject lecturers to develop training that can be delivered within the framework of the EMI content courses themselves. We developed a pilot programme for training students to take effective notes in English and applied it within the context of a first-year content course in Economics and Business Administration at a Spanish university. The students improved on several measures from the pre-test to the post-test, and provided positive feedback. They particularly appreciated learning how to build outlines, simplify information, and use abbreviations and symbols. Questionnaire responses indicated that they had found the training useful and appreciated the possibilities for direct application of the new skills acquired in their other EMI courses. Further research on how to train students in academic language competences within the ecologically valid setting of the EMI classroom itself could include support with subject-focused academic writing and speaking skills.

Toward linguistic justice and inclusion for multilingual learners: Implications of selective translanguaging in English-medium instruction classrooms

Background and aimsEnglish-medium instruction (EMI) mainly mandates teaching all subjects in English only, but evidence shows teachers and students use local languages alongside English, commonly known as translanguaging. This has been proposed as a transformative pedagogy, especially for ethnic/Indigenous children, but research on its impact on the lived experiences of ethnic minority students in EMI multilingual classrooms is lacking. This paper fills the gap by studying the discursive use of translanguaging in EMI classrooms in a multilingual school in Nepal. MethodsDrawing on an ethnographic study in an EMI school located in a multilingual ethnic minority community where mother tongues (i.e., Bhojpuri) other than Nepali were spoken, this paper reports on interviews, focus group discussions, and classroom observations in Grades 6 and 9 over 4 months. ResultsData analysis reveals that both teachers and students recognized a need to negotiate the English-only policy to accommodate their limited English proficiency and used Nepali but not their mother tongues as a supplementary language. While English-Nepali translanguaging seemed to facilitate a better delivery and understanding of content knowledge, this selective, excluding practice did not guarantee equity and equality due to excluding students’ mother tongues (i.e., Bhojpuri) in content classes and school language policy. ConclusionsOur findings highlight how such “selective translanguaging” practices and their related ideologies stigmatize mother tongues, causing linguistic injustice for ethnic minority students. The study proposes “inclusive translanguaging,” countering unequal language ideologies and embracing historically marginalized languages, cultures, and identities.

Teachers’ beliefs and reproduction of language ideologies in English-medium instruction programs in Nepal

Aims: This study explored the language ideologies that guide teachers’ language beliefs and practices in English-medium instruction (EMI) classrooms. It also sought to uncover the ways teachers’ beliefs and practices reproduce language ideologies and, thereby, social hierarchies within educational contexts. Design: Drawing on a narrative research design, the study utilized semi-structured interviews and focus groups to examine the language beliefs of content subject teachers from EMI higher education programs in Nepal. The data were analyzed through a thematic approach. Findings: The study’s results shed light on the prevailing language ideologies in EMI classrooms, where English holds a dominant position, followed by Nepali and other local/Indigenous languages. This linguistic hierarchy reflects deeply ingrained nationalist and neoliberal beliefs inherent in Nepal’s educational landscape. Moreover, the research underscores how these ideologies perpetuate societal hierarchies as educators emphasize the pivotal role of English proficiency for students’ upward socioeconomic mobility and access to global opportunities, while concurrently endorsing a deficient perspective on local/Indigenous languages. Consequently, this linguistic hierarchy perpetuates disparities in language treatment, thereby prompting concerns regarding equity and inclusivity in EMI programs. Originality: It sheds light on teachers’ complex beliefs and practices regarding the use of different languages in EMI settings. The study also highlights the language hierarchy that emerges within these classrooms, emphasizing the original contribution to understanding the complexities and implications of language ideologies within EMI programs. Significance: The study’s findings serve as a valuable resource for fostering meaningful discussions and facilitating evidence-based practices in the field of EMI, ultimately contributing to the improvement of multilingual higher education settings worldwide.

Displays of co-constructed content knowledge using translanguaging in breakout and main sessions of online EMI classrooms

There is a growing research interest in the dynamics of English Medium Instruction (EMI) university classroom interactions in non-Anglophone contexts. In the present study, we track the procedural unfolding of content knowledge co-construction across multiple online activities in an online EMI university classroom. Using Multimodal Conversation Analysis to examine the screen recordings of an undergraduate course on Educational Sciences at a state EMI university in Türkiye, we show how translanguaging plays a central role in enabling the participants’ displays of content knowledge by deploying multilingual (English, Turkish, the focal EMI university jargon) and multimodal (i.e., coordinating verbal and multimodal materials on the screen) resources across four phases of the online class, namely (i) lecturer talk, (ii) pre-task, (iii) task engagement in breakout rooms, and (iv) sharing outputs in the main room. The study brings implications for higher education EMI classroom interactions by describing the multilingual, multifaceted, multimodal, and sequential organization of screen-recorded online environments.

EMI Classroom Practices of International Program in Thailand University: A Perspective of EFL Thai’s Students

Background and Aim: The adoption of English Medium Instruction (EMI) in Thailand, particularly in university-level international programs, was driven by various factors. Most notably, it was viewed as a strategic move to prepare students for an increasingly interconnected world where English reigns supreme in academia, business, and diplomacy. This research examines the attitudes, challenges, and practices of English Medium Instruction (EMI) in an international program at a Thai university from the perspectives of Thai EFL learners. Materials and Methods: The study employs a mixed-methods approach, utilizing surveys, interviews, and classroom observations. A five-point rating scale questionnaire was distributed to 80 learners to investigate their perceptions of EMI. Additionally, in-depth interviews were conducted with 8 participants to gather detailed information on their attitudes, perceived advantages, and challenges related to EMI. Results: The findings reveal that Thai EFL learners have a positive attitude towards EMI, recognizing its benefits for English language proficiency and future employment opportunities. However, they face challenges in understanding instructors' English speaking, comprehending materials, and acquiring specialized vocabulary. Conclusion: The study emphasizes the importance of language preparatory courses, provision of support materials, teacher training, and the development of intercultural competence. Furthermore, it suggests that future research should involve a larger sample size and encompass various educational environments to gain a comprehensive understanding of Thai EFL learners' perspectives on EMI in international programs at Thai universities.

The Role of Goal Orientations and Communication Strategies in Willingness to Communicate in EMI Classrooms

Background: In English-medium instruction (EMI) classrooms, goal orientations, strategies, and communication play pivotal roles in facilitating effective learning. Achievement goal orientations (AGOs) guide and control learner competence-relevant behavior in academic performance. Communication strategies (CSs) are communication aids for learners to cope with problems or breakdowns while speaking the target language. Strategic competence is an indispensable affective-cognitive factor that promotes learners’ willingness to communicate (WTC) in a target language.
 Purpose: This study aims to investigate the role of AGOs and CSs in predicting WTC and the effect of English proficiency on AGOs and CSs in EMI classrooms.
 Methods: An online questionnaire survey regarding the perception of AGOs, CSs, and WTC was conducted with 595 university students taking one EMI course in social science and humanity domains in Taiwan. The items were on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’. Hierarchical multiple regression was adopted to predict WTC in EMI classrooms. One-way between-group MANOVAs were adopted to examine the individual and joint effect of English proficiency on the AGOs and CSs.
 Results: The hierarchical multiple regression model showed that task goal orientations and social affective strategies strongly and positively predicted the university students’ WTC in the EMI classroom. Performance-avoidance goal orientations and message reduction and alteration strategies were found to negatively predict WTC in EMI settings. Students’ English proficiency neither predicted their WTC nor affected their AGOs in the EMI classroom. High-proficiency students adopted accuracy-oriented, fluency-oriented, and negotiation for meaning while speaking strategies more frequently than low-proficiency students.
 Conclusion: It is suggested that a supportive and dynamic classroom environment with higher-order learning tasks involving cooperation, reflection, and objective assessment criteria can be incorporated into EMI programs. Besides, instruction in CSs and the use of multimedia teaching aids can facilitate EFL learners’ comprehension of subject-specific materials and encourage them to engage more in EMI classrooms.

Creating translanguaging spaces in a Hong Kong English medium instruction mathematics classroom: A comparative analysis of classroom interactions with and without the use of iPad

Recent educational studies have paid less attention to how teachers utilize resources to contingently respond to unexpected technical issues. This comparative study investigates how various resources are employed in moments when the teacher creates a technology-mediated space through the affordance of a mobile device (iPad) and moments that are not mediated by the iPad due to technical failure in an English-Medium-Instruction (EMI) mathematics classroom. The analysis, conducted using Multimodal Conversation Analysis and Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis, illustrates that the linguistic and multimodal resources, which are used in a technology-mediated space for developing pedagogical strategies, transcend the boundaries of mode since they are re-enacted in the context without using the iPad. I argue that an EMI classroom can be conceptualised as an integrated translanguaging space with different sub-spaces, allowing the teacher to strategically draw on multilingual and multimodal resources to transcend mode boundaries and shape the classroom as a space for learning.

A systematic review of research on translanguaging in EMI and CLIL classrooms

ABSTRACT The past decade witnesses a surge of empirical research on translanguaging in educational contexts of English medium instruction (EMI) and content and language integrated learning (CLIL). This systematic review analyses the methodological development, the theoretical underpinning and research themes of translanguaging in EMI and CLIL contexts. A search of five databases identified 103 publications on translanguging in EMI/CLIL contexts, published from April 2015 to May 2022. Among them, 66 were peer-reviewed journal articles, with research conducted in EMI/CLIL classrooms across various subject disciplines. In-depth analysis identifies five major research foci, including translanguaging practices in pedagogy, translanguaging practices and language ideology, translanguaging practices in teacher-student and/or peer interactions, and the effect of translanguaging practices on language and content learning. The review suggests a need of conducting more empirical research on translangugaing-oriented assessment in EMI/CLIL, the lack of which may lead to unsustainability of the discussions on the issues related to equity, repertoire and creativity in translanguaging pedagogy. Furthermore, more research is needed to explore translanguaging practices in EMI/CLIL with the affordance and constraint of digital practices, considering the increasing integration of digital technologies in learning and teaching. The implications of the findings for methodology, research directions, and pedagogy are discussed.

Engaging students in learning and creating different translanguaging sub-spaces in Hong Kong English Medium Instruction history classrooms

A key pedagogical goal in any classroom is to engage students in learning. This study examines how an English-Medium-Instruction (EMI) teacher employs available resources to engage his students in the classroom for promoting participation, keeping the lesson moving forward and meeting the pedagogical goals. The data for this study is based on a intensive fieldwork in an EMI secondary history classroom in Hong Kong. Multimodal Conversation Analysis is deployed to analyse the classroom interactional data. The classroom analysis is triangulated with the video-stimulated-recall-interviews that are analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. The study’s crucial theoretical contribution is that it broadens our comprehension of an EMI classroom as an integrated translanguaging space, which may involve various fluid and mobile translanguaging sub-spaces. This paper aims to illustrate the process of engaging students affords the teacher to create different translanguaging sub-spaces at a whole-class level and at an individual level. It is argued that creating these translanguaging sub-spaces requires the teacher to mobilise available resources for catering for the different needs of all students, which promotes interaction and inclusion in the classrooms.

Researching EMI policy and practice multilingually: reflections from China and Turkey

In the field of English medium instruction (EMI), multilingual research approaches are crucial to carrying out effective and ethically responsible research, because EMI policies and practices are inherently multilingual. This paper is a partial replication study that adopts a ‘researching multilingually’ analytical framework to interrogate the challenges and affordances of using multiple languages during two EMI research projects. In the project in Turkey, the lead researcher, who is an English-Turkish bilingual, analysed policy documents (n = 145) and interview data (n = 67) drawing on her knowledge of both languages. Additionally, 85 EMI classroom observations were conducted. In the project in China, the research team of two L1 English speakers and two L1 Chinese speakers investigated 93 bilingual policy documents and conducted interviews with 26 policy arbiters by drawing on both languages during data collection and analysis. Together, these reflections highlight how multilingual approaches can be utilised throughout the research process, from team formation, research design, data collection, data analysis, and presentation of findings in research reports.

Teacher professional identities and their impacts on translanguaging pedagogies in a STEM EMI classroom context in China: a nexus analysis

While translanguaging has gained increasing recognition as a multiliteracy pedagogy in English-medium instruction (EMI) education, research exploring its implementation in STEM classroom contexts remains limited. Furthermore, the interplay of EMI teachers’ professional identities and their instructional strategies has received little attention. This qualitative study explores how STEM academics in an EMI programme in China implemented translanguaging pedagogy, developed their professional identities, and examined the impact of identity on their classroom instructional language use. Drawing upon nexus analysis, the study maps the intersecting discourses influencing two EMI lecturers’ divergent language ideologies and translanguaging strategies. The findings highlight the role of teacher identity and agency in navigating institutional and classroom discourses, facilitating planned and effective translanguaging pedagogy. The study reveals identity struggles within the examined institution, where academic staff faced a challenge in balancing their roles as effective EMI teachers and successful researchers due to a discourse of research meritocracy and were constrained in exploring translanguaging pedagogy due to a discourse of internationalism. These challenges undermined their motivation to invest in teaching identity and pedagogical skills. This study underscores the need for a balanced view of research and teaching, more robust teacher evaluation systems, and institutional support to foster effective translanguaging pedagogy in EMI by incorporating teacher identity construction into EMI teacher preparedness.

Lecturers' readiness for EMI in Malaysia higher education.

The current study aims to examine lecturer readiness for English Medium Instruction (EMI) in higher educational institutions and the contextual influences of gender, age, academic qualification, teaching experience, EMI course teaching involvement, and EMI training. A quantitative research design was employed, and a survey questionnaire was completed by 227 lecturers (out of 250 invited participants) from private universities in Klang Valley, Malaysia to gauge self-ratings of personal knowledge, skills, abilities, and attitudes in educating EMI courses. The collected data were subsequently analysed via the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 27.0 software before revealing the findings from the inferential statistics of the t-test and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) on lecturers' gender, age, academic qualification, teaching experience, EMI course teaching involvement, and EMI training. Resultantly, the important role of lecturers' knowledge, understanding, skills, abilities, and attitudes was highlighted to further enhance intercultural communicative competence in managing the increasingly diversified student body in EMI classrooms.

To impart knowledge or to adhere to policy: Unpacking language ideologies and practices in Chinese EMI courses through a translanguaging lens

Due to the internationalization and marketization of higher education and the increasing prevalence of English as a global language, higher education institutions worldwide have implemented English medium instruction (EMI) courses, highlighting the necessity to examine how languages are chosen and practised in EMI courses. With a mixed-method triangulation approach, this study collected data through classroom observation, questionnaire survey and semi-structured interviews in order to investigate teachers’ and students’ language choices and practices in EMI classrooms at a Chinese university. The questionnaire results showed that although the respondents slightly preferred English-only practice, they found it difficult to implement it and would resort to translanguaging practices, confirming an inconsistency between language ideologies and language practices. The observation findings revealed the adoption of translanguaging for meaning comprehension, terminology explanation and translation of local elements, while interview findings revealed three types of student participants, i.e. believers, sceptics, and inbetweeners, towards translanguaging practice in EMI courses. In contrast, most of the teachers held a favourable stance towards the English-only practice in EMI courses. While the participants all regarded translanguaging practices as facilitators for language and content learning, they believed that hierarchical relationships do not exist among languages. This study carries important implications to bridge the gap between language ideologies and language practices and call for attention to developing language practice from a multilingual perspective.

English medium instruction (EMI) in Moroccan secondary schools: Science teachers’ perception

The present study explored a small-scale English medium instruction (EMI) initiative in Moroccan secondary schools, which is part of a top-down multilingual policy based on teaching science subjects through foreign languages, namely French, English, and Spanish. 18 secondary EMI teachers of math, physics and life and earth sciences were interviewed in order to understand the new policy. Following grounded theory (GT) methodology, the findings show positive attitudes towards the implementation of EMI in Moroccan education, but the teachers seemed unsatisfied with the way it has been implemented. They thought science teachers were not prepared for such a new tendency. The study also revealed that teachers’ low English proficiency was considered the major challenge to the successful implementation of EMI in Moroccan secondary schools and the essential reason behind using the first language in the EMI classroom. To prepare future generations for extending EMI in the Moroccan education, the teachers called for a switch to English as the first foreign language, instead of French, in all levels of schooling, and suggested gradual introduction of EMI in primary and middle schools. The study ends with some implications for overcoming the challenges of the new policy.

English Medium Instruction (EMI) and Maritime English Course: Higher Education Internationalization in Indonesia

The popularity of English medium instruction (EMI) practice in Indonesia has experienced a substantial increase in recent years. This surge can be attributed to the growing emphasis on the internationalization of higher education, with the maritime education sector also actively embracing this trend, aligning itself with the broader movement. Therefore, this research examined the implications of implementing EMI in teaching and learning practices, and determined its impact on curriculum arrangements in higher education. Data were collected through interviews with key stakeholders, observation of a recorded online EMI classroom, and program curriculum. The collected data were analyzed using thematic content analysis. The results showed that there is a redefined role for Maritime English lecturers and a need for revision of the curriculum in English courses within Maritime-related programs. Furthermore, adopting an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) approach is deemed crucial in addressing the immediate learning needs of students. These findings underscored the crucial role played by Maritime English lecturers in supporting students’ learning in an EMI environment.

Inquiry-based science teaching in English Medium Instruction science secondary classrooms: Teachers’ understanding and perceptions

This mixed-method study, employing inquiry-based science teaching theory, delves into the interaction of English Medium Instruction (EMI) and scientific inquiry by investigating science teachers’ understanding and perceptions of conducting inquiry-based science activities in EMI classrooms. Drawing on a questionnaire of 166 EMI science teachers and in-depth individual interviews with five of them, the findings suggest that these EMI science teachers encountered similar challenges to other science teachers teaching science in their first languages through an inquiry-based approach. They were found to hold a ­scientific ­method-oriented understanding of inquiry-based science teaching and a conflict between Chinese learning culture and ­inquiry-based science learning culture. Furthermore, the findings indicate that EMI science teachers faced additional challenges in inquiry-based science classrooms in the EMI context, including (a) the tension between passive English learning and the mutual learning of scientific inquiry and English, and (b) the contradictory stance between ­inquiry-based science teaching and EMI policy. This study has implications for policymakers in terms of the teaching and provision of ­inquiry-based science in the EMI classroom.

“Part of me is teaching English”: probing the language-related teaching practices of an English-medium instruction (EMI) teacher

Abstract English-medium Instruction (EMI), that is, the use of the English language to teach academic subjects apart from English, is a growing phenomenon around the world. In view of the facilitative role of language in content learning, scholars have stressed the need to incorporate a language focus into EMI classrooms. One practical question that arises from this discussion is “How?” This study, through a telling case, intends to reveal the classroom practices of an EMI teacher who explicitly addresses different language issues during her content teaching in a psychology course in a Macau university. Drawing on multiple sources of data including field observations and interviews, the authors unearth three forms of the teacher’s language-related teaching practices – (1) teaching language for content comprehension, (2) teaching language for classroom engagement, and (3) teaching language through feedback. Specific teaching techniques are further identified and discussed in relation to various personal and contextual factors surrounding the EMI classroom. Practical insights are offered to individual EMI teachers in embracing a language focus to facilitate content learning in EMI programs across geographical contexts.

A Review of English-medium Instruction in South Korean High Education

The implementation of English-medium instruction (EMI) has encountered challenges and difficulties at all levels of education and diversity around the world, particularly in high education. To gain a broader sense of the EMI implementation environment, this study, taking existing EMI studies in South Korean universities as its reference, examined the following questions: (1) What are the contents of the Korean HE EMI classroom? (2) What are Korean HE EMI classrooms like? (3) What are the attitudes towards EMI from the research? Based on an analysis of 40 empirical studies from 2008 to 2020, the results show that the contents are mainly in engineering-related majors crossing different academic years; the South Korean EMI classroom is challenging in the following three main binary relations: lecturing vs. verbal participation/interactive activities, students' higher vs. lower English proficiency, and achievements in English proficiency vs. content knowledge, which are also the universal challenges in the EFL EMI environment; and the attitudes, perceptions, and motivations of both students and professors were positive in general. This paper expects to provide references for future EFL EMI studies in different environments.