English-medium Instruction Classes Research Articles

University students’ use of language learning strategies in English-medium instruction classes

Abstract The last twenty years have seen dramatic growth in the provision of English-medium instruction (EMI) courses at universities. On such courses, many students learn academic content through a language other than their first language (L1). This often poses significant language-related challenges to students which can impede content learning. To cope with the linguistic challenges, students sometimes employ language learning strategies (LLS). However, despite the rapid growth in the provision of EMI, little research has been conducted into LLS use in an EMI context. This systematized review examines 36 relevant studies. The findings show that over time EMI students modify their strategic behavior as they become more aware of the strategies which meet their learning needs. Furthermore, learners gradually use more content-related strategies as they progress through their EMI courses. Although strategy deployment is generally self-directed, the findings indicate that LLS instruction can benefit learners. Therefore, it is recommended that EMI courses be supported by embedded EAP courses which provide strategy instruction alongside the teaching of discipline-specific vocabulary and discourse practices. The review also raises questions about the role of students’ L1 in EMI. By shedding light on existing studies in the field, the review highlights opportunities for future research.

Bridging Content and Language in English-medium Engineering Programs

English-medium Instruction (EMI) is increasingly being implemented in diverse educational settings where English is not the primary language. However, a persistent challenge of EMI implementation lies in the scarcity of high-quality EMI teaching materials that effectively enhance both content knowledge and language acquisition. This study aimed to investigate how language is integrated with content in EMI lessons and to assess their efficacy. The study involved three Civil Engineering teachers, three language teachers, and 102 students. Data collection instruments comprised journals kept by content and language teachers during the EMI materials development process, pre-tests and post-tests, satisfaction surveys, and semi-structured interviews. The quantitative results were analyzed using descriptive statistics and t-tests, while content analysis was used to analyze qualitative data. Results revealed that students expressed high satisfaction with the materials, noting increased participation in EMI classes, enhanced content comprehension, and heightened awareness of language use in lessons. Nonetheless, the design process of EMI materials is intricate, non-linear, time-consuming, and demanding of pedagogical expertise. While collaborative efforts between content and language teachers have appeared promising in theory, practical implementation in real contexts has proven to be challenging. It is recommended that the EMI materials developers possess pedagogical knowledge on content and language teaching, recognize the iterative and complex nature of the material design process, and the need for ongoing communication with the respective to enhance the success of the collaboration.

English medium instruction learners’ self-efficacy, engagement, and satisfaction; developing a measurement instrument

ABSTRACT This paper describes the development of a survey instrument to measure learners’ self-efficacy, engagement, and satisfaction within the context of English Medium Instruction (EMI) classes, with reference to both language issues and the discipline being taught. The paper presents details of analysis of the instrument using the Rasch model. The survey was administered to 287 tertiary students enrolled in EMI classes in Japan. Results of a Rasch Principal Components Analysis of Residuals showed the three intended constructs to be largely unidimensional. Item-level analysis, as well as reliability and separation measures and an investigation of Wright maps, provided further evidence that the items are working adequately to measure each of the three constructs and to allow differentiation between levels of each construct among the respondents. In addition, the effectiveness of the 6-point Likert scale used was confirmed with an analysis of category structure functioning. Finally, a correlation analysis with a subset (n = 97) of the participants for which English proficiency test scores were available was conducted. Results showed a small, statistically significant and positive relationship between reading proficiency and each of the three constructs.

Teaching Strategies for Small-Size EMI Classes of Specialized Courses

With the internationalization of higher education, English Medium Instruction (EMI) courses have shown a global growth trend. However, many instructors of specialist subjects lack EMI training and effective teaching methods. Based on the authors’ own teaching experience, this paper analyzes the factors that affect EMI classes, the characteristics of EMI class for specialized courses, and probes into the teaching strategies suitable for this kind of small-size classes.

Pedagogy in Teaching through English Medium Instruction—Academics’ Cases in a Chinese University

As a result of two decades of development, the trajectory of English medium instruction (EMI) research has moved from the identification of problems towards a focus on pedagogy. In response to studies in the literature claiming that the dominant approach in EMI pedagogy is the direct transmission of knowledge, and calls for research investigating classroom discourse in EMI teaching, this study explores the pedagogical features enacted by bilingual EMI academics in a Chinese university’s EMI program. The participants were four academics who were teaching a subject in parallel across both EMI and CMI student cohorts. The research employs Paulo Freire’s framework of dialogic teaching as the theoretical lens and focused on investigating moments in which the EMI lecturers ‘dialogued’, engaged, and/or interacted with students in their EMI classes. This research found that, in spite of their varied disciplines, the lecturers mostly implemented expository teaching in their EMI and CMI classes in general. The efforts of individual academics in relation to intellectual equality, the wellbeing of students, and the encouragement of critical thinking through dialogue and interaction were identified. However, due to the academics positioning themselves as experts in subject knowledge, the tendency in their teaching was characterized as monologic rather than dialogic. This research contests a major theme in the literature, which is that the academics’ English (EMI teaching), in reference to their first language (L1), is not the major contributor to their pedagogical approach.

The Impacts of Foreign Language Anxiety on Students in English-Medium Instruction Classes in the Central Region Universities, Vietnam

This study investigates the anxiety frequency of students in English-medium instruction classes and its relationship with gender and English performance. The questionnaire was administered to 300 students in three universities in Central Vietnam. The follow-up interviews and classroom observations were conducted to obtain more insights into the research problems. The results revealed that the EMI students had moderate levels of anxiety. The most provoking causes of students’ anxiety were worries about making mistakes, inconfidence during speaking tasks and fears of negative judgment from peers and teachers. The analyses of the variables related to foreign language anxiety revealed a significant negative correlation between students’ foreign language anxiety levels and their English competence. No statistically significant relationship was found between male and female students. The study provides several pedagogical insights for curriculum designers, educators and teachers to improve the quality of English-medium instruction courses in the Vietnamese context.

Teacher questions, wait time, and student output in classroom interaction in EMI science classes: An interdisciplinary view

Past research has often shown a lack of student output in English medium instruction (EMI) classes (e.g., An et al., 2021; Lo & Macaro, 2012) and this study seeks to identify possible reasons. Guided by literature on wait time (Rowe, 1986) and teacher higher-order thinking questions (Chin, 2007), this study explores whether these two pedagogical moves have the same impact on classroom interaction in EMI science classes. 30 EMI science lessons were recorded from seven EMI high school programs in China, taught by 15 native speakers of English to homogenous groups of Chinese students. Correlation tests showed that when there was more wait time after a teacher question, the students produced lengthier responses with more linguistic complexity, took up more talk time, and asked more questions. However, greater use of teacher higher-order thinking questions, coded by Chin’s (2007) framework of constructivist questions, did not correlate with any student output measures. This suggests that wait time may be a more effective factor leading to more student output in EMI classes than asking higher-order thinking questions. Qualitative analysis showed teachers’ follow-up moves may have also played a role in the limited success of higher-order thinking questions.

Content teachers’ and lecturers’ corrective feedback in EMI classes in high school and university settings

To date, very limited research interest has been given to the strategies English-medium instruction (EMI) teachers or lecturers deploy to provide corrective feedback (CF) on the language use to their students during class interaction. In other words, when EMI teachers incidentally focus on students’ problematic language use, how do they correct it – providing explicit correction or using recast or elicitation? This article reports on a study that examined CF types EMI teachers and lecturers used during classroom discourse, drawing on data collected from classroom observations and recordings of six different EMI classes in high school and university settings in Korea. The frequency and types of CF used in reactive language-related episodes (LREs) were identified in the EMI classes and compared between the two settings and across disciplines (social science, mathematics, and computer science). Findings showed that all the EMI teachers and lecturers offered CF to their students but with different frequency; the schoolteachers offered CF more frequently than the university lecturers. Also, the schoolteachers used more various types of CF than the lecturers. In both settings, CF occurred most frequently in mathematics compared to the other two disciplines. This article ends with suggestions for ways the findings of this study can be used to raise EMI teachers’ awareness of various options for providing CF on students’ linguistic errors during their incidental teaching practices.

The attitude of Iranian students and instructors toward implementing EMI through virtual exchange

English-medium instruction (EMI) has been rapidly adopted worldwide as a strategy for internationalization, accompanied by a substantial amount of research attention. However, research on EMI has only recently been conducted in Iran. To contribute to the ongoing growing literature, this study explores the attitudes of Iranian students and instructors toward the possibility of implementing EMI in Iran through virtual exchange (VE). In order to determine whether EMI can be used through VE in Iran, a mixed method sequential explorative study was conducted. It has been identified that the linguistic readiness of students and/or instructors is the primary barrier to the success of EMI through VE in Iran because EMI is still in its infancy. In accordance with the literature, systematic support is required at the institutional level. Yet many of the students showed interest in the idea of EMI via VE, even if it was only a short one-session VE lesson, primarily to enhance their linguistic skills and global competencies. This study proposes that integrating EMI through VE at the graduate level may be more feasible. This is because there are already more EMI seminars and classes available, students are self-directed learners, and they may be better linguistically prepared. Regarding EMI access through VE, there were advantages and disadvantages. The benefit of using VE in EMI is that EMI would be accessible even to students living in less privileged locations, but the disadvantage is that the accessibility of the Internet may not be stable, considering requiring a VPN to access some websites. It is hoped that this study will serve as a useful starting point for future research in Iran and similar settings.

Academic Success in English Medium Courses: Exploring Student Challenges, Opinions, Language Proficiency and L2 Use

The growth of English medium instruction (EMI) programs at universities worldwide has raised questions about the implications of teaching through L2 English on students’ content learning outcomes. This study examined the impact of four factors on students’ academic success (e.g. content learning) in the Turkish EMI context: (1) students’ language-related challenges; (2) students’ opinions about the effectiveness of EMI; (3) students’ perceived language proficiency levels; and (4) the amount of L2 English used in EMI classes. Students’ perceived academic performance was taken as a proxy of EMI success. The study employed a quantitative empirical design using questionnaires and regression analysis. Data were collected via an online questionnaire from 498 students at an EMI university in Turkey. The results revealed that students’ language-related challenges and perceived language proficiency were the only predictors that were associated with academic success in their EMI courses at a statistically significant level. The amount of English used in the classroom was not found to predict success in EMI, suggesting that students may benefit from multilingual models of teaching. These findings underscore the importance of adequate language support for students on EMI programs, and implications are discussed with respect to EMI policy, program planning, and teacher pedagogy.

English Medium Instruction (EMI) in Higher Education: Insights from Indonesian Vocational Lecturers

Reported studies show that some common reasons for offering courses in English medium instruction (EMI) seem to be pragmatic. The rationales for the internationalization of higher education are to improve the English proficiency of both lecturers and students and to facilitate global mobility. However, this responsive practice has some challenges, including limited understanding among university stakeholders of the implications of implementing EMI. This quantitative study examined lecturers' perceptions of EMI in a selected vocational university in Indonesia. A set of four-point Likert scale questionnaires was distributed to 41 lecturers in eight departments, who were selected through simple random sampling to ensure their status as the department's content lecturers. The survey responses were statistically analyzed using SPSS software version 22. The findings showed that the lecturers agreed with all three main issues: terms used as a reference to EMI, EMI practice in the classrooms, and necessary support for EMI implementation, with average means of 2.10, 1.96, and 1.73, respectively (1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = disagree, 4 = strongly disagree). These key findings highlight the existence of higher education internationalization and the tension among lecturers in understanding the pedagogical implications of EMI on language use and the assessment of student learning. The main findings also support the need for clear and specific arrangements for EMI implementation in many contexts globally. In response to the increasing trend of EMI in the future education system, we suggest vocational higher education institutions nurture code-switching in EMI classes, adopt content-based English courses, and collaborate between English and EMI content lecturers.

How Do EMI Lecturers’ Translanguaging Perceptions Translate into Their Practice? A Multi-Case Study of Three Chinese Tertiary EMI Classes

Translanguaging is discussed widely in the literature as a new pedagogical tool for English-medium instruction (EMI) that can challenge monolingual assumptions, mitigate English language barriers, and advocate for the full use of linguistic resources in meaning making. Different EMI lecturers have been found to hold diverse translanguaging perceptions and have adopted a variety of its functions. However, more needs to be known to close the knowledge gap between how each lecturer envisions and practices their translanguaging pedagogies, if any. Employing a qualitative method using data from semi-structured interviews and classroom observation, this study investigated three Chinese tertiary EMI engineering lecturers’ translanguaging perceptions and practices. Taken together, these three cases illustrate the complex relationship between translanguaging perceptions and practices according to their interactional (e.g., students’ difficulties in understanding full EMI), socio-cultural (e.g., the socially constructed value of full EMI), and personal factors (e.g., EMI teaching experiences). We propose that the negotiation among these three domains can promote or withhold the transfer of translanguaging perceptions into practice. We use our findings to call for EMI training programs to encourage lecturers’ reflections regarding what languages are or can be used in EMI classrooms and how and why from socio-cultural, personal, and interactional perspectives.

Teacher talk in English-medium instruction classes in Japanese universities

Abstract English-medium instruction (EMI) courses in higher education have increased dramatically over the past decade and Japan is no exception. In the implementation of EMI courses, the role of English and the local language (Japanese) during content education is a subject of debate. The present study analyses EMI teacher talk by looking at aspects such as speech structure, and the role of language during content-education. Twelve undergraduate classes from four academic subjects in Economics, Ethics in Science, Project Planning, and Development Studies (three classes from each subject) were observed and recorded. Transcripts from these classes were analysed using Christie’s (1989) classroom discourse approach of curriculum genre, and Bernstein’s (1996) notion of horizontal and vertical discourses. Research findings revealed that there are similarities in EMI teachers’ classroom speech structure. However, the learning context has an effect on the role of English language which in turn influences content education.

Multiple layers of marginalisation in class: English-medium instruction in Korean higher education

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to understand marginalisation in class because of language use in English-medium instruction (EMI) in Korean higher education and how students experience this marginalisation. The general EMI setting in this study is Korean faculty teaching Korean undergraduate students and some international students in English. The Korean students in this study took EMI classes as a requirement for graduation at two elite private universities in Seoul, Korea. The findings from the analysis of qualitative data collected through individual interviews show that the adoption of EMI creates multiple layers of marginalisation. These layers include the marginalisation of students, languages (both Korean and English), and learning. On the basis of these findings, the article raises questions about the normalisation of marginalisation caused by EMI in higher education systems in non-English-speaking countries.

A study of language-related episodes in online English-medium instruction classes in high schools in South Korea

In both face-to-face and online settings, attention to language during interpersonal interaction is essential for students’ academic English development in English-medium instruction (EMI) classes. This article reports on a study of attention to language spontaneously arising in two different online EMI classes (world history and mathematics) in high schools in Korea. The frequency and nature of language-related episodes (LREs), any instances where teachers and students talk about the language they use, identified in the transcripts of class recording and synchronous text-based chat were analysed. Transcribed interview recordings were also analysed to explore the challenges for the EMI teachers in dealing with language issues during their online classes. Findings indicated the frequent occurrence of LREs during interpersonal interaction in both online classes. The majority of the LREs were initiated by the teachers, and students, too, initiated some LREs. Different patterns were found in the interactional type and linguistic categories of LREs between the different disciplines. Synchronous text-based chat appeared to facilitate students to proactively initiate LREs, mainly to attend to vocabulary and grammar. Findings also revealed that both EMI teachers had more challenges helping students with language in the online context than in the F2F context.

EMI in Chinese higher education: the Muddy water of ‘Englishisation’

Abstract English in Chinese higher education has shifted from being taught as a foreign language alongside other disciplinary-focussed courses to becoming an important medium of instruction used for learning and teaching non-language related academic subjects. While using English medium instruction (EMI) seems a natural and neutral academic exercise, the switch has muddied the water of EMI implementation and caused a number of social and academic issues for both students and lecturers. These problems include unfair promotion opportunities, unequal access to EMI classes, inadequate learning outcomes, and poor teaching quality. This special issue builds on past and current EMI work that explores issues related to EMI implementation in Chinese higher education institutions and in classrooms. Through the selection of several empirical papers, the special issue shines light on current knowledge, policies and practices of EMI in China to pave the way for research-informed recommendations.

Language learning opportunities in native vs. non-native EMI lecturer input: insights for a language-aware approach to EMI teacher training

ABSTRACT Despite a growing body of research on English-medium instruction (EMI), little is known about how actual EMI lecturers’ language practices support L2 learning, specifically key psycholinguistic processes such as learner comprehension and output. This paper presents a classroom-centred study of the L2 learning opportunities found in the EMI lecturers’ input. More specifically, it compares the presence of discourse features and strategies supporting students’ input comprehension and output in a series of EMI classes taught by an English L1 lecturer and an English L2 lecturer at a Catalan university. The results show that both lecturers employ a variety of strategies to foster comprehensible input and student participation in their classes, with a clear bias in favour of the former. The English L1 lecturer provides more support to comprehensible input than his English L2 counterpart, who is keener on student participation. The profile of the students might have prompted the use of different discourse strategies, as well as the lecturers’ beliefs on the nature of L2 scaffolding in EMI. We argue for the importance of developing research-informed EMI teacher training programmes revolving around discipline-specific language awareness and reflective cycles.

Student language mixing practices in English medium instruction courses at elite universities in South Korea

ABSTRACT The present study examines the language use of 1,333 students taking English medium instruction (EMI) courses in four elite universities in South Korea. It employs a quantitative method with qualitative comments. The study investigates three language practice issues in EMI courses, including: (i) the extent of use of English in EMI courses, (ii) students’ use of English outside the university and (iii) students’ language mixing practices. The results show that the reality of EMI classes encompasses the parallel use of both Korean and English. This study also finds that while Korean is the dominant language outside the academic context, there is increasing use of English by students in social settings. This study argues that acknowledging the mixed-use of languages in EMI classes is critical and suggests implementing a dual language education policy. Finally, it discusses the impact of EMI on the language behaviour of Korean students and challenges a long-held view of a wholly monolingual Korean society.

‘English-only’ English medium instruction: Mixed views in Thai and Vietnamese higher education

Emerging from the growing body of work on English medium instruction (EMI) in higher education are challenges to policy implementation, particularly when it is implemented top-down without a careful needs analysis or when it fails to address problems associated with ‘English-only’ implementation and so-called ‘native speaker’ norms. Our study responds to this need by exploring the role of English in EMI classrooms. We draw on data collected from 17 universities in Thailand and Vietnam using questionnaires with 1,377 students, 83 teachers of English for academic purposes (EAP), and 148 content teachers, as well as interviews with 35 students, 31 EAP teachers, and 28 content teachers. We also draw on data from 14 focus groups with teachers and students at seven universities in Vietnam. Findings reveal differences in attitudes amongst stakeholders and highlight that the L1 in EMI classrooms in Thailand and Vietnam, albeit used sparingly, is a useful pedagogical tool. Overall, however, participants preferred native-accented teachers with experience abroad, and English-only instruction. This study calls for more research into raising awareness of Global Englishes and translanguaging practices to challenge such attitudes, university language policies, and teacher recruitment practices that seem to reflect native-speakerism and discourage bilingual instruction or L1 use in EMI classes.

Motivations to enrol in EMI programmes in China: an exploratory study

Abstract A recent interest in English Medium Instruction (EMI) has led to the flourishing of studies that examine motivation in EMI classrooms. Some of these studies tend to compare language learning motivation of students who are and are not enrolled in EMI programmes (see e.g. Doiz, Aintzane, David Lasagabaster & Juan Manuel Sierra. 2014. CLIL and motivation: The effect of individual and contextual variables. The Language Learning Journal 42(2). 209–224; Sylvén, Liss Kerstin & Amy S. Thompson. 2015. Language learning motivation and CLIL: Is there a connection? Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education 3(1). 28–50), showing that EMI learners are typically more motivated than their peers in non-EMI contexts. This has led to the common perception that learners enrol in EMI primarily to improve their English. Yet, there is a dearth of comprehensive studies exploring learners’ reasons behind their enrolment in EMI programmes and how these change throughout their studies. To address this gap, 247 university students from a range of universities across China filled in the questionnaire, which included scales pertaining to reasons for choosing an EMI programme. The data were analysed in SPSS. The results show that enhanced future job opportunities, opportunities for contact with an international community as well as potential gains in learning content and language specific vocabulary are the most strongly endorsed drivers that motivate EMI students to undertake their studies in English. They also tend to pursue their ideal visions of themselves as bilingual professionals and derive pleasure from EMI classes. To a lesser extent, students are motivated by what is expected of them and the actual pedagogy in the language classroom. Their motivation tends to stay stable over their years of study. However, the survey also revealed that not all students are equally motivated and resolved to continue with EMI studies. The findings highlight that, whereas students tend to be strongly motivated, there is a potential to improve the delivery of EMI courses.