English-medium Classrooms Research Articles

Interactions with new-to-teacher language resources: Supporting translingual composing in a multilingual elementary classroom

Educators should support multilingual students’ translingual writing. However, it can be challenging for teachers to support students’ composing in languages that teachers do not speak. Drawing on a community translanguaging lens, this paper explores this issue by asking: How did teachers talk about and interact with language resources that were new to them while supporting translingual writing in an English-medium classroom? Data were collected using ethnographic and practitioner research methods across 1 year in one second-grade writing workshop in the U.S. Students spoke Spanish, Korean, French, Tagalog, or English, and classroom teachers spoke English and Spanish. Data analysis first involved descriptive coding of videorecorded composing interactions to identify every teacher interaction involving a new-to-them named language. These events were then re-examined using constant comparative coding to identify interactional patterns. This yielded three main findings; teachers: (1) positioned students as language experts and themselves as language learners, (2) drew on shared language resources to support student writing in new-to-teacher languages, and (3) expanded audiences to support student writing in new-to-teacher languages. Implications include pedagogical steps teachers can take to support students’ use of new-to-teacher languages while writing, and ideological and social implications of teacher talk about those languages.

Analyzing Teacher-Student Interaction in English-Medium Classrooms: Flanders’ and Initiation-Response-Feedback Model in-Focus

Analyzing Teacher-Student Interaction in English-Medium Classrooms: Flanders’ and Initiation-Response-Feedback Model in-Focus

“I wasn’t trained for ELD”: The experiences of bilingual content-area teachers

ABSTRACT This study explores the experiences of two Spanish-English bilingual content-area teachers of newcomer youth at a comprehensive high school in South Los Angeles. Both teachers criticized school demands to develop language while teaching content for several reasons. This qualitative study examines their critiques and their use of Spanish in their English-medium classroom as a transformational resistance strategy. One-on-one interviews reveal the challenges content-area teachers face when teaching newcomer youth as well as the benefits of leveraging their home languages. This study calls for greater attention to develop and support in-service teachers’ understanding and use of translanguaging practices.

Translanguaging for Doing Gender in English-Medium Classrooms in Hong Kong: Towards Critical CLIL in Plurilingual Settings

ABSTRACT Critical content and language-integrated learning (CLIL) has been advocated to attest raciolingusitic ideologies in plurilingual educational settings. However, little is known about how to help students in contesting inequalities about other structures of domination in bilingual education programs. This study aims to address this gap by examining the construction of gender identities in Secondary 4 (Grade 11) English-medium Liberal Studies lessons, which aimed to enhance awareness of gender equality and subject-specific English skills about the topic. The study shows that gender was constructed and reconstructed by conflicting multilingual and multimodal gendered discourses, including the formal curriculum, school lesson materials, and classroom interaction. The paper reveals that teachers and students jointly constructed masculinities of “real men,” “good men” and “gay men” in CLIL classrooms imbedded in curriculum contexts infused with gender dualism and alternative gender values began to emerge after the CLIL lessons. The results suggest that CLIL teachers can facilitate development of critical literacies about gender by enabling encounters of different voices in translanguaging and trans-registering spaces created by students’ familiar L1 everyday discourses and multimodal practices. Pedagogical implications were also discussed.

‘Tu connais le answer?’: Multilingual children's attempts to navigate monolingual English Medium classrooms in Cameroon

This paper explores the ways that multilingual children attempt to access the English medium curriculum in Cameroonian primary education. We focus on Francophone Yaoundé where there has been a sharp rise in the number of children from predominantly Francophone multilingual homes attending English medium schools. The paper draws from a child-centred case study and data generated through classroom observations, child-group and individual interviews and recordings of student interactions around unsupervised tasks to show how learners are drawing from their multilingual resources to attempt to transgress monolingual norms in the classroom. The data also shows that learners are doing what they can to ‘get by’ but they are doing this in ways that are not supported by policy, pedagogy, or teaching materials. The paper concludes with a discussion of the ways that monolingual policies epistemically exclude children in an immensely complex multilingual context and draws implications for more inclusive policy and classroom practice.

Code-switching in Bilingual Classroom in Sri Lanka: Differing Perception of Teacher and Students

Code-switching occurs in multilingual cultures where citizens have the right and ability to speak two or more languages. This phenomenon can frequently be seen in the English Medium classrooms in the Sri Lankan state school where English and Sinhala are used interchangeably for classroom practices. This article aims to examine subject teachers’ and students’ perspectives towards the use of English and Sinhala for instruction and learning in English medium classrooms in state schools in Sri Lanka, thus identifying how code-switching impacts on students’ performance. The study used mixed method for data collection. Five English medium teachers of three schools in the Hambantota district in Sri Lanka were interviewed and forty students who are learning the subjects in English medium in five schools were distributed questionnaires. The study used random sampling method for selecting the participants and Thematic Analysis (TA) for identifying, organizing, and interpreting data. One key finding of this study is that most teachers employ code-switching in bilingual classrooms in order to make the students familiarize with the subject matter. Although the majority of students are willing to speak English, as a medium of instruction in bilingual classrooms, students need their teachers to explain the lessons in both media. Although code-switching can enhance a student’s knowledge of a specific subject it does not make the student a better speaker or a writer. The current study has implications for bilingual teachers, students, syllabus, and material designers.

Defining and negotiating translingual awareness in “monolingual” teacher education

As a challenge to social and material inequities in the opportunities and outcomes of U.S. public schooling for students of color, more teachers are being prepared to teach with culturally responsive and sustaining pedagogies (Ladson-Billings, 1995; Paris, 2012). As teachers in mainstream, English-medium classrooms encounter more linguistic diversity, they must also be prepared to teach with linguistically sustaining pedagogies, such as translanguaging pedagogy (García, Johnson, & Seltzer, 2017). The objective of the present study is to explore one example of how translanguaging pedagogy can be integrated into an English-medium teacher education curriculum. This paper analyzes a case study of effective instruction, student learning, and reflective practice in teacher education, examining how undergraduate Education Studies majors in a linguistic justice course define translanguaging as a pedagogical framework and negotiate it in conversation with monolingual orientations. Through thematic analysis of qualitative data, including student work, course artifacts, and reflection surveys, this study demonstrates how a group of future teachers developed translingual awareness through specific course activities. This study ultimately highlights both the challenges and successes of promoting translingual awareness in traditionally “monolingual” teacher education, and provides concrete steps towards preparing all teachers to teach with culturally and linguistically sustaining pedagogies.

“You don't actually experience it until you're actually in it”: A translanguaging simulation for preservice teachers

“You don't actually experience it until you're actually in it”: A translanguaging simulation for preservice teachers

Translanguaging in higher education: exploring interactional spaces for meaning-making in the multilingual universities of Pakistan

ABSTRACT In the multilingual contexts such as Pakistan, English as the only medium of instruction poses challenges for adequate teaching and learning at the university level. Our study aimed to explore teachers’ translanguaging practices at the university level. We attempted to understand why teachers translanguaged and how they perceived the impacts of translanguaging in their English medium classrooms. By employing a mixed-methods design, we firstly observed classes and then interviewed teachers. This qualitative phase was followed by a questionnaire survey. Class observations suggested that the practice of translanguaging provided an interactional space to both teachers and students for creating and understanding meaning of their interactions. The analysis of interviews and questionnaire survey confirmed that translanguaging promoted meaningful communication in classes. Teachers believed that they could easily communicate their ideas when they taught by employing translanguaging as a strategy. They held that practicing translanguaging in the class resulted in developing students’ interest in lectures too. We discuss pertinent implications in the light of findings.

‘The Silence Kills Me.’: ‘Silence’ as a Trigger of Speaking-Related Anxiety in the English-Medium Classroom

Classroom interpersonal dynamics play a key role in shaping the interactional profiles of language learners and the development of their speaking skills. However, it can be challenging for learners to navigate social interactions with classmates, especially if they lack confidence in their L2 self. This is especially true for first-year undergraduates in Japan who often struggle to adapt to unfamiliar communicative language lessons taught in the target language. King’s (2013) examination of learner silence established a connection between low oral participation, anxiety, and social inhibition. In some cases, however, silence is not just a non-verbal cue of speaking-related anxiety (Maher & King, 2020); it can also be a contributing factor to avoiding talk. Using King’s (2014) cognitive-behavioural model of silent L2 learners’ anxiety, this paper examines how ‘silence’ can trigger speaking-related anxiety in Japanese university English-medium classrooms. The study used a cognitive-behavioural theory (CBT)-based approach to gain insights into students’ perceptions of their in-class behaviours. Forty-five semi-structured interviews were conducted with 17 participants using an interview schedule based on a CBT formulation to explore students’ silent behaviour, associated thoughts and feelings, and behavioural triggers. Multiple recurrent forms of classroom ‘silence’ reported by the participants included using Japanese when English was expected, finishing speaking turns quickly, and taking on the listener role rather than initiating discourse. The findings reveal ‘silence’ as a trigger of speaking-related anxiety. The discomfort some participants felt during a display of ‘silence’ seemed to trigger a fear of being negatively evaluated by classmates, leading to self-doubt about their language proficiency and social performance. These findings contribute further insights into the causes of speaking-related anxiety and learner ‘silence’. Our study points towards using CBT-based approaches to improve speaking confidence by increasing learners’ awareness of their anxiety triggers.

Translanguaging as a Transformative Act in a Reading Classroom: Perspectives from a Bangladeshi Private University

ABSTRACT This study investigated the role of translanguaging pedagogy in reading comprehension of first-year students studying in an English medium classroom of a Bangladeshi private university. Data were collected through classroom observations, pedagogical intervention, focus group discussion with students and a semi-structured interview with the class teacher. The notions of ”translanguaging space” and ”critical instances” were used to analyse the data. The results show that the translanguaging space provided scope in each step of the intervention to maximise the use of the linguistic and semiotic resources of students, putting them at ease, and enhancing epistemic access to and comprehension of complicated English texts. The purposeful design of the lecture, including scaffolding with multilingual words and expressions, and guided reading with Bangla text and topics pertaining to students’ lives, engaged them deeply with the content, while also transforming knowledge and subjectivities about the given topic.

Tertiary-level students’ L2 reticence in relation to teacher leadership in an English-medium classroom

The present study investigated the relationships between second language (L2) reticence and language teacher leadership. Twenty graduate students enrolled in an English-medium course at a Chinese university and their teacher participated in this case study. The research instruments included classroom observations, reflective journal writing, and in-depth, semi-structured interviews. The results showed that the students' L2 reticence persisted throughout the observation period in complicated interaction with the teacher's leadership. Both the students and teacher were found to have exercised their agency in relation to L2 reticence and teacher leadership. Based on the findings of the study, implications are suggested.

Incorporating Reader’s Theater in Japanese University EFL Classrooms

Reader's Theater is an activity that is often utilized in classrooms for younger learners. However, this activity, which fosters a cooperative learning environment, can also be used to increase the fluency of Japanese university EFL learners. This article explains how the author uses Reader’s Theater (hereafter called RT) with adult learners and how it can be scaffolded in a Japanese university setting through the introduction of information on the Japanese voice acting industry. Moreover, the benefits of implementing RT in the EFL classroom, potential challenges when doing so, and different ways of addressing these challenges are also discussed. The article focuses on the use of cooperative learning strategies, such as the jigsaw technique, which can be used to enhance student voice acting skills, delivery, pronunciation, and teamwork. Utilizing strategies like these can help ensure that RT will be an engaging activity for students in an English-medium classroom.

From the Editors

From the Editors

Patterned Differences in Grade 3 Mathematics Teachers’ Working with Representations Across Two Language Contexts: Implications for Learning Opportunities

In this paper, illustrative excerpts from mathematics lessons are analysed to examine mathematical and multilingual moves between representations within Sepedi and English medium classrooms. Duval’s theory of representational registers and the literature on multilingual practices help foreground similarities within and differences between the instructional practices of four teachers—two teaching in the medium of Sepedi and two in English—as they move between mathematical and multilingual representations in the teaching of numbers. The findings show patterned differences on the basis of the medium of instruction, with the Sepedi medium instruction indicating, primarily, ‘restatement’ moves between the oral and the symbolic modes of representation, whilst the English medium instruction incorporated a higher incidence of mathematical moves between oral, concrete, iconic and symbolic number-based modes of representation. The evidence of broader use of mathematical representational moves as observed in the English medium lessons offers insights into how and, perhaps, why learners’ knowledge development and understanding of early number in English medium classrooms may emerge in ways that are different from the knowledge developed in the Sepedi medium classes. These patterned differences are important to understand in a South African context where language of instruction continues to be associated with differences in mathematical outcomes in ways that, as previously documented, relate to socio-economic disadvantage.

FILLERS IN ACADEMIC DISCOURSE: AN ANALYSIS OF LECTURES FROM A PUBLIC UNIVERSITY IN GHANA

One way of ensuring fluency in lesson delivery for students to follow its flow in the classroom is through the use of fillers. This study examines the use of fillers in lectures in a public university in Ghana. Specifically, it investigates the types of fillers used in the Ghanaian English-medium classroom and discusses the communicative functions the fillers perform. To achieve these, real-time lessons were recorded from 24 lecturers in the university. The data were subjected to orthographic transcription, categorization, and thematic analysis of fillers for their types and functions in the lessons. Results show that the lecturers used 51 unlexicalized and lexicalized fillers. The unlexicalized ones comprised um, er, and uh while the lexicalized types consisted of lengthened syllables, repetition, and single words. With respect to the communicative functions, the fillers were found to perform cognitive functions (stalling and hesitating), social functions (attention getting and feedback), and discourse-regulatory functions (as editing term and discourse closing). Based on these results, it is proposed that lecturers should understand the importance of fillers so as to use them to their benefit and that of their students.
 
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Mapping Out Unequal Englishes in English-medium Classrooms

ABSTRACT The link between globalization and the spread of English is well established in the literature, resulting in the emergence and burgeoning of studies on the pluralization and localization of English. However, Englishes are also valued unequally and, thus, impact the lives and identities of their speakers differently as well. This paper aims to discuss the politics of Unequal Englishes by mapping out the specific ways inequalities of Englishes are realized in classrooms in Singapore. This requires mapping out accurately both the dynamics of locally produced but globally shaped teaching of English, as well as concrete instantiations of culturally responsive pedagogies which aim to make learning and teaching more nondiscriminatory and equitable.

Drawing on students’ diverse language resources to facilitate learning in a Japanese–English bilingual program in Australia

Recently, the incorporation of students’ home languages into monolingual classrooms has been reinvigorated by a scholarly focus on extended linguistic repertoire. In bilingual programs, ideas of language separation have traditionally influenced teaching and learning as a way to protect the minority language, but there is a growing call to engage with the complexity of students’ language practices. In this article, it is suggested that the English-medium (dominant language) classroom can be an effective site for exploring how to leverage and affirm students’ home language practices in bilingual education, and also to support the minority language in the program. Data are drawn from a design-based study that investigated the transition of a Japanese–English primary bilingual program from 30% of instruction in Japanese to a 50:50 program. As part of the study, a Foundation teacher and a Year 5/6 teacher worked towards English curriculum objectives by incorporating languages their students spoke at home, including Japanese, into the English-medium classes. Findings revealed that some Foundation students did not immediately draw on home language practices, instead choosing to use Japanese, whereas the Year 5/6 students demonstrated ambivalence towards Japanese but not towards other language practices.

Medium of instruction in Hong Kong secondary schools: integrating L1 in English-medium classrooms

ABSTRACT Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) has become popular in bilingual educational contexts around the world. In Hong Kong, medium of instruction (MOI) in secondary schools has received great attention among teachers, students and parents over the years. After the handover of Hong Kong to China, the local government launched the mother-tongue language policy. However, many parents believe that English as a medium of instruction (EMI) secondary schools are better than Chinese (Cantonese) as a medium of instruction (CMI) schools. After years of discussion, the government implemented a ‘fine-tuning’ language policy which allows more schools to offer EMI curriculum. These development of language policy have prompted policy makers and educators to rethink whether monolingual instructional approach benefits students the most in CLIL classrooms. Reviewing the language policy in Hong Kong, this paper suggests that English-medium CLIL programmes, with purposeful use of Cantonese, should be promoted in Hong Kong secondary schools.

“Her sentence is correct, isn't it?”: Regulative discourse in English medium classrooms

Research on discourse in African classrooms has shown the predominance of teacher centered instructional practices. Teacher centered discourse patterns have been blamed for student passivity and disengagement in knowledge production. In this article, we investigate teachers' use of the invariant tag isn't it in Kenyan primary classrooms during ELA and math lessons. Using Bernstein's pedagogical device theory, we submit that the tag plays a regulative function in classroom discourse. Based on our findings, we argue for greater attention to teachers' language choices and discuss implications for classroom discourse practice and research.