English Dwellings Research Articles

Household analysis of health-related indoor temperature exposure: comparison between thermal comfort and health conditions in English dwellings

Household analysis of health-related indoor temperature exposure: comparison between thermal comfort and health conditions in English dwellings

Potential modifying factors for the older people feeling cold/warm in the English dwellings

Potential modifying factors for the older people feeling cold/warm in the English dwellings

Summertime overheating in UK homes: is there a safe haven?

Summertime overheating in dwellings in temperate climates is widespread. Overheating in bedrooms disrupts sleep, degrading health and wellbeing, and can be life-threatening. Air-conditioning homes is a solution, but is expensive and adds load onto electricity networks. An alternative is to provide safe havens, a cool retreat for sleeping when the main bedroom overheats. This paper estimates the number of English dwellings that might already have such spaces. The 2017 Energy Follow Up Survey (EFUS) to the English Housing Survey (EHS) provides temperatures measured in the main bedroom, up to two other bedrooms and the living room of 750 homes. These data were collected in 2018, a summer typical of those expected in the 2050s. The main bedroom overheated in 19% of the housing stock as judged by an adaptive comfort criterion. Up to 76% of these homes had living rooms that could provide a safe haven, and in up to 46% an alternative bedroom might provide a safe haven. Very few, if any, flats and small-area dwellings had a safe haven. These figures provide an upper-bound estimate; in practice the useable number of safe havens is likely to be less. <em><strong>Policy relevance</strong></em> Safe havens for use during heatwaves have been suggested as a climate-adaptive strategy to ameliorate indoor overheating. In this study, the prevalence of safe havens, which can be slept in when the main bedroom overheats, is estimated. Living rooms offered the best opportunity of a safe haven for sleeping, with 5.8 million of the 7.4 million people experiencing an overheated main bedroom being relieved of exposure. Flats and small dwellings were more prone to overheating, but few, if any, had either a living room or a spare bedroom that offered a safe haven. Overall, this study strengthens the idea that public health advice, especially during heatwaves, should be tailored to different dwelling and household types. For larger dwellings other than flats, advice could emphasise the benefits of sleeping in the living room, where possible, on hot nights. Homes without safe havens should be the focus of heat mitigation retrofit strategies.

The summer indoor temperatures of the English housing stock: Exploring the influence of dwelling and household characteristics.

As the high temperatures experienced during the summer of 2018 may become commonplace by 2050, adaptation to higher indoor temperatures while minimising the need for mechanical cooling is required. A thorough understanding of the factors that influence indoor temperatures can enable the design of healthier and safer dwellings under a warming climate. The aim of this paper is to provide further insight into the topic of indoor overheating through the analysis of the largest recent sample of English dwellings, the 2011 Energy Follow-Up Survey, comprised of 823 dwellings. Following the pre-processing stage, the indoor overheating risk of 795 living rooms and 799 bedrooms was quantified using the criteria defined within CIBSE's Technical Memorandum 59. Approximately 2.5% of the dwellings were found to exceed Criterion 1, with this figure approaching 26% when Criterion 2 was considered. Subsequently, the indoor temperatures were standardised against external weather conditions and the correlation of 11 dwelling and 9 household characteristics was examined. Factors such as the main heating system, tenure and occupant vulnerability were all found to have a statistically significant association with the indoor temperatures. Further analysis revealed multiple correlations between household and dwelling characteristics, highlighting the complexity of the indoor overheating problem.Practical application: By applying the criteria in CIBSE's TM59, 26% of the dwellings monitored during the 2011 Energy Follow-Up Survey were found to overheat. Since 2011 was a cool summer and future temperatures are expected to be warmer, even more dwellings are expected to fail these criteria in the future. Multiple dwelling and household characteristics were associated with higher indoor temperatures, including: dwellings with a SAP rating > 70, more recently built and with communal heating. Thus, it is crucial to consider indoor overheating risk at the building design or refurbishment stage to prevent the possible consequences of uncomfortably high indoor temperatures.

Results of a 15-year systematic survey of commensal rodents in English\xa0dwellings

Population trends for commensal rodents are the subject of interest and speculation but accurate data are rarely available. Here we report data from a 15-year systematic survey of rats and mice in English dwellings and present national-level estimates of prevalence for 1996–2010. We found evidence for peaks in prevalence of mice inside and rats around dwellings in 2002 and 2008. Models containing twelve variables relating to the dwelling and local area explained some but not all of the variation in prevalence. Older dwellings, those in rural areas, those with litter, drainage faults and pets or other animals outdoors tended to have higher levels of rodent prevalence. Regional differences were found but there were no seasonal trends apart from lower prevalence of mice during summer. Rodent prevalence was generally higher in rented (compared to owner-occupied) dwellings, although apparently not due to reduced tendency to carry out rodent control. The percentage of households having taken some form of action against active rodent problems varied according to prevalence at the national level, and therefore appropriate data on number of rodent control treatments carried out each year could likely act as a useful index of household rodent prevalence.

Old and cold? Findings on the determinants of indoor temperatures in English dwellings during cold conditions

Indoor temperatures during winter conditions play an important role in influencing the comfort and health of households, space heating energy demand and peak heating power. The role that physical dwelling features and household characteristics have on wintertime indoor temperatures has been examined among low-income households, but not across English households in a systematic manner. This paper examines determinants of indoor air temperatures during wintertime conditions to examine how temperature conditions vary with, for example, dwelling age or household socio-economic conditions. Using a cross-sectional survey of English dwellings that included monitoring of indoor air temperatures from January 2011 to February 2012, this study examines the determinants of indoor temperatures during wintertime conditions within a representative sample of English dwellings (N=821). The study analysed indoor temperatures standardised to outdoor air temperatures of 0°C, 5°C and 10°C within the study sample and the influence of physical dwelling features (type, age, size), household characteristics (tenure, income, composition, benefit receipt) and energy performance (loft and wall insulation, heating system and performance rating levels). The analysis finds that as dwelling age decreased (i.e. newer), so did indoor air temperatures in both the living room and bedrooms, after adjusting for a selection of dwelling and household characteristics. Compared to the lowest income quintile, households with higher incomes kept warmer temperatures, but this was not a linear increase and the highest incomes were not on average the warmest. There appears, however, to be little change in the dwelling temperature trends when looking at lower or higher outdoor air temperature conditions (i.e. 0°C and 10°C). In designing policies to improve indoor thermal conditions, policymakers will need to consider underlying energy performance of the dwelling alongside the socio-economic conditions of the household, for example when providing fuel support payments to at risk households.

Overheating in English dwellings: comparing modelled and monitored large-scale datasets

ABSTRACTMonitoring and modelling studies of the indoor environment indicate that there are often discrepancies between simulation results and measurements. The availability of large monitoring datasets of domestic buildings allows for more rigorous validation of the performance of building simulation models derived from limited building information, backed by statistical significance tests and goodness-of-fit metrics. These datasets also offer the opportunity to test modelling assumptions. This paper investigates the performance of domestic housing models using EnergyPlus software to predict maximum daily indoor temperatures over the summer of 2011. Monitored maximum daily indoor temperatures from the English Housing Survey’s (EHS) Energy Follow-Up Survey (EFUS) for 823 nationally representative dwellings are compared against predictions made by EnergyPlus simulations. Due to lack of information on the characteristics of individual dwellings, the models struggle to predict maximum temperatures in individual dwellings and performance was worse on days when the outdoor maximum temperatures were high. This research indicates that unknown factors such as building characteristics, occupant behaviour and local environment makes the validation of models for individual dwellings a challenging task. The models did, however, provide an improved estimate of temperature exposure when aggregated over dwellings within a particular region.

Retrofit solutions for solid wall dwellings in England: The impact of uncertainty upon the energy performance gap

This study seeks to evaluate the impact of uncertainty in the pre-retrofit thermal performance of solid walls of English dwellings on post-retrofit energy use. Five dwelling archetypes, broadly representative of English solid wall properties, were modelled pre- and post-retrofit, under different wall insulation scenarios, using dynamic thermal simulation. Findings indicate that whilst solid wall insulation could result in a significant reduction of space heating demand, uncertainties in the pre-retrofit solid wall U-value could lead to a gap between the anticipated and actual energy performance. Specifically, results show that if the current U-value assumption of 2.1 W/m2K is indeed an overestimation of the in-situ U-value of solid walls, then the anticipated carbon savings could be significantly reduced by up to 65%. Practical application: The performance gap observed in this study revealed that the actual carbon savings arising from the retrofit of solid wall properties could be significantly lower than predicted. This will not only affect UK Government carbon reduction targets but it can also result in a lack of confidence amongst stakeholders who may consequently doubt the effectiveness of energy retrofit measures, thus reducing their uptake. Uncertainties regarding solid wall U-values may necessitate the re-examination of the carbon targets set for the retrofit of solid wall dwellings and the exploration of alternative ways to further reduce their carbon emissions, e.g. by specifying higher insulation thicknesses.

Energy efficiency uptake and energy savings in English houses: A cohort study

The UK Government estimates that approximately 22TWh of energy can be saved from English dwellings by 2020 from a range of fabric and heating energy efficiency retrofits. Yet the rate of retrofit uptake has been less than is needed to meet government targets and the retrofits impact on energy demand has been less than predicted. Two questions that must be addressed are: who have (and have not) taken up retrofits and what household factors affect this; and, what impact have these retrofits had on energy use and how does this differ among households. The purpose of this study is to provide a better understanding of the uptake of energy efficiency retrofits and the resulting change in energy demand. A cohort of 168,998 dwellings gas-heated English dwellings was used to examine retrofit uptake from 2002 to 2007 and the change in gas use from 2005 to 2007. The findings show that retrofits do have an attributable impact on reducing energy demand and that combining retrofits displays a dose–response like effect, after controlling for household and dwelling factors. Energy savings play a central role in meeting UK climate change mitigation targets and therefore understanding the take up of energy efficiency retrofits and their impact on energy demand and variations in these retrofits across the population is vital to understand their potential.

Health effects of home energy efficiency interventions in England: a modelling study

ObjectiveTo assess potential public health impacts of changes to indoor air quality and temperature due to energy efficiency retrofits in English dwellings to meet 2030 carbon reduction targets.DesignHealth impact modelling...

Quantifying the extent of space shortages: English dwellings

Lack of internal space is a problem in UK homes, and is often linked to a lack of space standards for housing in the UK. Although previous studies have examined new-build housing, this paper uses a new method to study 16 000 dwellings in the English Housing Survey (EHS) 2010 to examine existing housing and compare them with a modern space standard in an attempt to quantify the extent and magnitude of the problem. Dwellings in the survey were compared against a slightly modified version of the London Housing Design Guide 2010 internal space standard. It was found that between 21% and 55% of dwellings failed to meet the standard; and that flats and small terraced houses were most commonly below the standard. Dwellings were also frequently found to be under-occupied in comparison with the number of bedrooms. This research hypothesized that this was a result of the lack of space. To illustrate the use of this new analysis method, a recent change to the Housing Benefit system (colloquially known as the ‘Bedroom Tax’) has been considered. Households receiving Housing Benefit were more likely to be undersized, suggesting that the policy to withdraw housing benefits from these households may be misguided.

Uptake of energy efficiency interventions in English dwellings

Little detailed evidence has previously been available regarding the uptake rate or prevalence of energy efficiency interventions among specific household groups. This study uses the Home Energy Efficiency Database (HEED) to investigate both the combination of measures that have been installed, and in which dwellings, according to key neighbourhood socio-demographic variables, including income and tenure. Analysis of 2000–07 data indicates that approximately 40% (9.3 million) dwellings in England had approximately 23.7 million efficiency measures installed, with an average of 2.5 measures per dwelling. Building fabric-related measures were the most frequent (e.g. cavity wall insulation, loft insulation and glazing) with an average of 2.1 million installed each year. Dwellings with the highest number of fabric interventions (the top 20%) were more likely to be found in areas with low income, with more owner-occupied dwellings, experiencing lower winter temperatures, having a lower proportion of flats, and having a slightly higher proportion of older adults and children. Energy efficiency installations have tended to occur among specific types of households or parts of the building stock. These findings have implications for the design of future government programmes for targeting energy efficiency measures to specific household groups or dwelling types.

The potential for increased winter indoor temperatures due to retrofitting homes in England

Background: Cold housing is thought to contribute to excess winter mortality and morbidity. Given the projected intensification of action to increase home energy efficiency in high income settings, we assessed the potential to improve winter indoor temperatures and maximize benefits to health from targeted interventions. Aims: To estimate indoor winter temperatures in English dwellings and the potential increases relevant to health that could be achieved through home energy efficiency interventions. Methods: Indoor winter temperatures were estimated using dwelling and energy efficiency characteristics from the English Housing Survey. Temperature increases due to different energy efficiency interventions were modelled using empirical evidence, taking account of eligibility. Results: 26.5 million people in England (including 5.7 million under 16 years and 1.5 million over 75 years) live in homes with predicted indoor temperatures &lt; 18 °C, and 45,000 people (11,000 children, 2,000 elderly) in homes with predicted temperatures &lt; 15 °C when the outdoor temperature is 5 °C or less. These indoor temperatures are sufficiently low to have adverse effects on cardio-respiratory health and mental well-being. Differences between population groups were found in relation to the characteristics of their homes. Installing all straightforward energy efficiency interventions (including roof and wall insulation, double glazing, and heating system replacement) increased predicted indoor temperatures by 0.6 °C on average and up to 6.5 °C in some homes. However, the associated energy savings were relatively modest and some dwellings still did not maintain an adequate temperature even after retrofitting. Conclusions: Although conventional energy efficiency measures have potential to increase indoor temperatures with benefit for health, especially for vulnerable groups, much more ambitious and expensive energy efficiency interventions are needed to meet health and energy reduction goals.

National survey of summertime temperatures and overheating risk in English homes

This paper presents one of the first national scale studies of summertime temperatures in English dwellings. Living room and bedroom temperatures were recorded in 207 homes across the England during the cool summer of 2007. Data was also collected by face-to-face household interviews. Fourteen homes (7%) were observed to be heated for part or all of the analysis period (July to August). Based on the BSEN15251 adaptive thermal comfort model, the 193 free-running dwellings would, in general, to be considered as uncomfortably cool. Over 72% of living rooms and bedrooms had more than 5% of hours below the BSEN15251 Cat II lower threshold, with over 50% having more than 5% of hours below the Cat III threshold. Detached homes and those built before 1919 were significantly cooler (p < 0.05) than those of other type and age. Static criteria revealed that, despite the cool summer, 21% of the bedrooms had more than 5% of night time hours over 26 °C; which is a recommended upper limit for bedrooms. The bedrooms of modern homes, i.e. those built after 1990 or with cavity walls, were significantly warmer (p < 0.05). The bedrooms in homes built prior to 1919 were significantly cooler (p < 0.05). The living rooms of flats were significantly warmer than the living rooms in the other dwelling types (p < 0.05). The incidence of warm bedrooms in modern homes, even during a cool summer, is of concern, especially as there is a strong trend towards even better insulation standards in new homes and the energy-efficient retrofitting of existing homes.

The Development of English Semi-detached Dwellings During the Nineteenth Century

Buildings in England are heritage listed if they are of special architectural or historical interest, and based on the significance, appropriate conservation priorities can be determined.But to list, and then conserve, one must first identify, then research and assess. The problem is being able to recognise an important example of a semi-detached house (semi) if it is neither very old nor aesthetically appealing. The semi is the most common dwelling type in England, yet because it is typically suburban and ordinary, very little research into its origins and development has been carried out. As a result, semis are under-represented in heritage listings. And once listed, it is difficult, if not impossible, to set priorities for ongoing conservation work or adaptive reuse, without knowledge of the historical or social underpinnings of its significance. Even those ordinary buildings which do not reach the thresholds for listing risk being unnecessarily degraded, through demolition, decay or unsympathetic alterations, if there is no understanding of their stories or meanings, and no safeguards are built into the planning guidelines.

The impact of energy efficient refurbishment on the space heating fuel consumption in English dwellings

The aim of this study is to examine the effect of a major domestic energy efficiency refurbishment programme on domestic space heating fuel consumption. The case study dwellings were monitored either before or after (or both) the introduction of energy efficiency retrofit measures such as cavity wall insulation, loft insulation, draught stripping and energy efficient heating system. Property and utility consumption data were collected and half-hourly living room and main bedroom temperatures were monitored for 2–4 week period over two winters from a total of 1372 households selected from five major urban areas in England. Space heating fuel consumption was normalized to account for variation in the indoor–outdoor temperature difference and the dwelling floor area. The findings show that cavity wall and loft insulation can reduce the space heating fuel consumption by 10% in centrally heated properties and 17% in non-centrally heated properties. However, the introduction of a gas central heating system, although theoretically more efficient, has no significant impact in reducing fuel consumption even after adjusting for increased internal temperature.

A study of indoor 220rn and 222rn decay product concentrations in the uk

In order to gain a better understanding of the risk of human exposure to 220Rn indoors, measurements of 220Rn decay products have been performed in a number of houses in England. The study focused mainly on areas where above-average indoor 220Rn concentrations were to be expected because of geological or other factors. Thoron (220Rn) in room air comes mainly from the building materials, with an additional contribution from soil gas; therefore, 220Rn concentrations were examined in relation to building materials as well as location. Measurements were carried out in 23 houses. The mean equilibrium equivalent 220Rn (EET) concentration found was 0.39 Bq m-3 and the mean equilibrium equivalent 222Rn (EER) concentration was 17.8 Bq m-3. The 220Rn concentration values and EET/EER ratios found in this investigation correspond well with other published results. Values imply that the 220Rn concentrations in English dwellings are a far less important problem than 222Rn concentrations.

Some Additional Observations on California's Monterey Tradition

Between the years 1834 and 1850, California experienced the construction of a group of two-story porched or cantilevered balcony adobes, which eventually came to be labeled as the Monterey style. The first cluster of these Monterey adobes was built in the mid-1830s. The earliest of these, by a matter of months, was the Alpheus B. Thompson adobe (1834-1836) in Santa Barbara. Others, including the often-discussed Thomas Oliver Larkin adobe (1834-1837), were scattered throughout much of the length of coastal California. These California Monterey style adobes not only represent a commingling of Hispanic and Anglo architectural traditions, but their specific porched and balconied forms were clearly related to English, French, Spanish, and American two-story dwellings built in the Caribbean area, in the American Southeast, in the lower Mississippi Delta, and in the American Southwest of Texas and New Mexico.

The English Dwelling House before the Tudors

The English Dwelling House before the Tudors