English As A Second Language Learners Research Articles

Developing Motivation in ESL Learning in the Chinese Context

Motivation is crucial and imperative in positively achieving language learning goals. Learning English as a second language (ESL) is a demanding and challenging task which often makes Chinese students stressed, anxious and consequently unable to perform well in the English language classroom. Recent research into motivation in language learning has revealed that motivation has considerable benefits to facilitating the learning process as a means of improving students’ confidence and promoting class participation. A positive motivation enables language learners to become more focused and proficient in learning the use of another language. This paper critically examines the significance of motivation in English language learning in the Chinese context, and argues that increasing motivation can provide learners with significant advantages in improving confidence and enhancing classroom involvement in the language classroom. It is suggested that motivation, through development of a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic factors, can be harnessed for positive student outcomes.

A design study of a multimedia instructional grammar program with embedded tracking

This is a design study meant to demonstrate the feasibility of integrating three rather different theoretical perspectives for future efforts in multimedia instructional design. A multimedia instructional grammar program contextualized within the teaching of English as a Second Language (ESL) was developed and evaluated. The program design was grounded in Mayer’s multimedia learning theory (2001), Sweller’s cognitive load theory (CLT, 2005), and cognitive training theory using an inductive reasoning paradigm (Klauer and Phye, Rev Educ Res 78(1):85–124, 2008). A successful integration of cognitive training theory into program design is expected to facilitate the transition of student’s declarative knowledge of a grammar concept of passive voice to procedural knowledge (Phye, Contemp Educ Psychol 16:87–94, 1991; Phye et al., Empirical methods for evaluating educational interventions, Academic Press/Elsevier, San Diego, 2005). Two studies involving ten and four adult ESL learners were conducted in a Midwest community college. Grammar teaching occurred within the context of history and geography of the USA. Students with low prior knowledge of passive voice grammar concepts, intermediate level of general vocabulary, and adequate basic knowledge of content (basic geography and history) benefited most from the program. Preliminary results are encouraging for the aforementioned integrative efforts.

Learning how to read situations and know what is the right thing to say or do in an L2: A study of socio-cultural competence and language transfer

This study investigates the interlanguage behavior of Chinese learners of American English, focusing on how they offer ‘compliments’ in a second language (L2). In this paper, the behavior of Taiwanese ESL (English-as-a-second-language) learners in the United States is compared with that of Taiwanese native speakers of Mandarin Chinese and with that of native speakers of American English, in order to reveal how the ESL learners perform this speech act in naturally occurring contexts. The results showed that the linguistic strategies and options employed to realize compliments by native Chinese speakers were very different from those used by native speakers of English. For example, Chinese speakers were much less inclined to offer compliments than were English speakers. This tendency was also visible in the L2 of Chinese ESL speakers. Therefore, although there were some similarities between the learners and the target language speakers, the performance of the former, in terms of the use of strategies, positive semantic carriers, syntactic formulaic patterns, supportive moves and/or small talk, could often be seen to reflect native language (L1) communicative styles and the transfer of L1 socio-cultural strategies into L2 behavior.

Awareness of L1/L2 differences: does it matter?

This study is an investigation of the extent to which francophone learners of English as a second language (ESL) are aware of the differences between French and English question formation and how such awareness relates to their L2 performance. Three tasks were administered to 58 grades 5 and 6 francophone ESL learners. In a grammaticality judgement task, learners were asked to judge the grammaticality of English Wh– and yes/no questions. In a scrambled questions task, participants were instructed to create questions with sets of words written on individual cards. Some of the participants were also interviewed. Students’ own grammaticality judgement and scrambled questions tasks were used as stimuli for the interviews. On the grammaticality judgement task, questions in which the subject was a pronoun were judged more accurately than questions in which the subject was a noun. The most frequent non-target question forms that learners produced on the scrambled questions task were those in which a word (e.g. auxiliary do) was ‘fronted’ (placed at the beginning of a declarative sentence). The interview indicated that most students had a poor understanding of differences between English and French questions. Correlation analyses showed a positive relationship between students’ awareness of L1–L2 differences and their ability to correctly judge and form questions in English.

Should Vocabulary Instruction Be Integrated or Isolated?

This study compares integrated and isolated form‐focused instruction for vocabulary development in an English as a second language (ESL) reading lesson. Two classes of ESL learners (N = 20) from a university preparation academic English course were involved in the study. Each class did two reading treatments in which they read an article and studied vocabulary from that article. In one of the treatments participants were taught the words in isolation prior to reading the article, and in the other the vocabulary instruction was integrated with reading the article. Paribakht and Wesche's (1997) vocabulary knowledge scale was used as the instrument to measure learning and retention gains for words taught in isolated instruction, in integrated instruction, and words acquired incidentally. Statistical analysis showed both types of instruction led to more learning and retention of vocabulary knowledge than incidental exposure alone. Although retention rates were similar for isolated and integrated instruction, there was a trend for isolated instruction to lead to higher rates of learning.

Toward a Taxonomy of Written Errors: Investigation Into the Written Errors of Hong Kong Cantonese ESL Learners

This article examines common lexicogrammatical problems found in Cantonese English as a second language (ESL) learners' written English output. A study was conducted with 387 student participants, who were asked to do two untutored and unaided free‐writing tasks of about 200–300 words each. A range of lexicogrammatical error types commonly found among Hong Kong Cantonese ESL learners was identified. Errors from the lexical level included vocabulary compensation and inaccurate directionality; errors from the syntactic level included calquing, existential structures, incorrect ordering of adverbials, and independent clauses as subjects; and those from the discourse level included periphrastic‐topic constructions. Mothertongue influence was inevitably an important source of the problems, but inadequate mastery of correct usage of the target language and universal processes were also important factors. The results of the study have potential for enhancing our understanding of the interlanguage grammar of learners and the nature, sources, and prevalence of learner problems. The results also have promising pedagogical implications, as they inform teachers of the levels, nature, sources, prevalence, and gravity of learner errors and equip them with the key ingredients needed for the design of appropriate remedial instructional materials. A discussion of how the taxonomical classification would be useful for language teachers is also given.

Corrective Feedback for Learners of Varied Proficiency Levels: A Teacher’s Choices

This study investigates how one English-as-a-second-language (ESL) teacher provided corrective feedback to 15 child ESL learners that the teacher had divided into two groups based on proficiency level. Classroom data in transcripts from the CHILDES database were analyzed for type of learner errors, type of teacher feedback, and rate of learner uptake (attempts at correction) and repair (correction). Results showed differences in the types of errors produced by each proficiency group and in the type of feedback the teacher provided to each proficiency group, demonstrating provision of finely tuned corrective feedback based on learners’ individual differences.

Reports from the field: Engaging learners as interpreters for developing health messages — designing the ‘Familias Sin Plomo’ English as a Second Language curriculum project

California has a recently documented problem of trans-national environmental lead exposures in imported foods from Mexico but there is limited health information available in immigrant communities about this problem. This report highlights collaborative work with English as a Second Language (ESL) learners to critically review research data on lead exposures and reframe prevention messages about lead contamination of imported foods. These messages are now integrated into ESL curricula for dissemination to Spanish-speaking populations that are disproportionately affected by lead poisoning. This 'learners as interpreters' approach is a participatory method that can be applied across a wide range of public health activities. ESL learners emerged as ideal partners in developing curriculum for lead poisoning prevention for several reasons: the parents expressed strong interest in lead poisoning prevention, several have children under age 6 when lead screenings are recommended, and many have emigrated from regions in Mexico where lead hazards were identified.

Processability Theory and the role of morphology in English as a second language development: a longitudinal study

This article tests a prediction made by Processability Theory (Pienemann, 1998; 2005) that morphological acquisition is the driving force in English as a second language (ESL) development. It first outlines the model of psycholinguistic processing assumed by Processability Theory and shows how stages fall out from it. It then presents the hypothesis that morphological information propels development before sentence-level processing at stage 5 and describes what this should predict for ESL learners. A study is then presented that tested these predictions on oral data collected from two Mandarin speaking, adolescent, ESL learners over one academic year. The study found the acquisition of structures both predicted and not predicted by Processability Theory. While the results afford some evidence consistent with the claims about stages of development, they also provide counter-evidence to the hypothesis that the acquisition of morphology drives development up to stage 5: one learner acquired the predicted syntax for stages 3 and 4 without the morphology, and both learners acquired syntactic structures before associated morphology. Indeed, the findings suggest that the acquisition of morphology, and syntax, varies with learner orientation. To explain these findings, the article presents a proposal that draws on both Processability Theory and generative approaches to second language acquisition (SLA), and concludes by considering the implications of the study.

The relationship between speech perception and production in second language learners.

This study aims to examine the relationship between perception and production skills in second language learners. Thirty‐nine Chinese college students who have received at least eight years of English‐as‐a‐second‐language (ESL) education in school participated in the study. The data were collected using two programs: HearSay from Communication Disorders Technology Inc., Indiana, and a perceptual test program developed by Yang Zhang at the University of Minnesota. Digital recordings of each participant’s production of the individual words used in the perceptual test program were rated in the scale of 1 to 5 by two native speakers of English. Results demonstrated the existence of complex relationships between perception and production in ESL learners. Overall, the consonants demonstrated a significant positive correlation between perception and production (p<0.01) with voicing showing strongest effect. Vowels, on the other hand, did not show significant correlations in any of the five categories examined: tense/lax, high/low, front/back, diphthong, and vowel insertions. Four patterns were identified for the individual phonemes: (a) good perception and good production, (b) poor perception and poor production, (c) good perception and poor production, and (d) poor perception and good production. The results are discussed with respect to speech learning models and practical instructional approaches.

The Dynamics of L2 Self and L2 Learning Motivation: A Qualitative Case Study of Korean ESL Students

This paper links Vygotskian sociocultural theory (SCT) and activity theory (Tae-Young Kim, 2007, 2009; Vygotsky, 1978, 1987) to Dornyei's (2005, 2009) second language (2) motivational self system. Since the majority of L2 motivation research has focused on quantitative data, an in-depth investigation of L2 learning motivation from a qualitative research orientation seems necessary. By analyzing interview data obtained from four Korean adult English as a second language (ESL) students, this paper focuses on the interface between SCT-based L2 motivation theory and L2 motivational self system. The participants were on short-term visas and lived in Toronto for approximately 10 months to learn English. The findings of the study suggest that 1) in order to facilitate L2 learners' ESL learning, students' ought-to L2 self needs to be internalized by the learners and transformed into their ideal L2 self, and 2) only when students' initial L2 learning motive is integrated with specific learning goals and their sense of participation does L2 learning motivation emerge. It is argued that SCT can be applied to Dornyei's L2 motivational self system, and this will produce more robust L2 motivation theory having ecological validity.

Gender and Communication Strategy Use in Learning English as a Second Language

Abstract The study examined the use of communication strategies in same- and cross-gender interactions by learners of English as a Second Language (ESL). Analysis of oral data from 10 female same- and 10 cross-gender interactions using an integrated psycholinguistic, social interaction and discourse-based framework showed that communication strategies were mainly used to overcome linguistic inadequacies rather than to enhance the message. Female learners used considerably more restructuring while male learners preferred approximation to bridge communication gaps when understanding of meanings may not be shared. The ESL learners were found to accommodate in their use of communication strategies to the gender of their interaction partners. In cross-gender dyads, there were attempts at a more careful formulation of the message, as indicated by a decrease in the use of approximation by both female and male speakers and an increase in restructuring of the message by male learners. The results revealed that it was not the gender of the learners but the gender of the interaction partners that heightened the use of message-enhancing communication strategies, particularly, topic fronting by female speakers and lexical repetition by male speakers. The potential of cross-gender interactions in ESL language learning contexts is discussed.

Designing video narratives to contextualize content for ESL learners: a design process case study

In this paper we discuss how the Brigham Young University Technology Assisted Language Learning Group (BYU TALL Group) develops video-based dramatic narratives to increase the amount of context we provide to English as a second language (ESL) learners. First, we discuss the problem of decontextualization in education, the contextualism alternative, and how narrative can provide crucial context. Next, using ESL instruction as a case study, we compare non-narrative video-based language models with narrative models and discuss some of the potential benefits of narrative models. We then discuss issues to consider when using narrative models, and outline a narrative-focused design and development process with particular attention to those aspects critical to creating narratives that are simultaneously pedagogically sound, aesthetically credible, and engaging for learners to watch.

Teaching Comprehension Skills using Context –Based Texts in Second Language Learning at Tertiary Level

Content-based reading texts play a vital role in the acquisition of knowledge and information in various fields of studies. Reading these texts at higher institution demands a great deal of effort from the students who are learners of English as a Second Language (ESL). These students who are generally school leavers, whose level or reading exposure is confined to Bahasa Malaysia-based text in their primary and secondary education, have to tackle on their own the tremendous demand of reading and comprehending the English content-based texts. These texts are derived from reference books or lecture notes, which are in English and may pose language barriers for the ESL learners. These are also ESL learners when first enter tertiary level; have met a minimum requirement of at least a credit in English as a second language at secondary school level. These reading materials pose comprehension difficulties when they are streamlined into specific field of studies. This paper attempts to look into the training of selected comprehension skills that language lecturers, particularly new ones in the teaching field, can apply the teaching skills to help learners to alleviate the comprehension challenges when reading content-based texts. This paper is also intended to assist new language lecturers who are embarking in ESL teaching of reading comprehension using content-based texts.

The Effects of Integrated Language‐Based Instruction in Elementary ESL Learning

The purpose of this research study is to compare the effectiveness of 2 different instructional approaches to language instruction—integrated (oral plus written) versus oral‐only instruction—in developing oral language skills of young students learning English as a second language (ESL). Drawing upon 2 competing research perspectives on young ESL children's English language learning, this study examined the question “Does integrated, language‐based intervention lead to greater gains in the oral language development of focus ESL students than oral language‐based intervention?” The study participants were 2 beginning ESL students—one from Korea (Yun) and one from China (Yang)—enrolled in kindergarten in a multicultural school in a Midwestern state (student names are pseudonyms). Results from the 2 focus students' performances on multiple oral language assessment measures showed that integrated, language‐based intervention led to greater gains in the focus students' oral language development than did an exclusively oral language‐based intervention. Thus, the key instructional issue is not whether literacy should be used for beginning ESL students, but rather in what ways is literacy most effective in supporting ESL students' language and cognitive development.

The Applications of Phonemic Contrasts and Their Implications for Oral English Teaching in Nigeria

This paper focuses on the applications of phonemic contrasts in the utterances of forty final-year Yoruba-English bilingual University undergraduates and the implications of their applications on pedagogic practices especially in English as a second language (ESL) environment. This subject is rarely studied in Nigeria, yet, it might be significant for shaping the effective teaching of oral English. The respondents, twenty of whom were students of English and the other twenty, students of Yoruba, were tested based on the framework of traditional phonemic theory. The results indicated that only 40% of the students studying Yoruba Linguistics were able to apply phonemic contrasts in the rendition of English words whereas 60% of the students undertaking English Studies did. The study establishes application or otherwise of phonological rules as a vital dimension of investigating phonological variation and proficiencies in ESL and suggests the need to pay more attention to the area in ESL teaching and learning operations, especially for students in other disciplines. Keywords : phonemic contrast, English as a second language, oral English teaching, Nigeria MARANG Vol. 18 2008 pp. 29-36

BRIDGING DISCOURSES IN THE ESL CLASSROOM: STUDENTS, TEACHERS, AND RESEARCHERS. Pauline Gibbons

BRIDGING DISCOURSES IN THE ESL CLASSROOM: STUDENTS, TEACHERS, AND RESEARCHERS. Pauline Gibbons . New York: Continuum, 2006. Pp. 256. $60.00 paper. In English-speaking countries with large numbers of immigrants, like the United States and Australia, children from non-English-speaking families are very likely to encounter difficulties in learning English and content knowledge simultaneously. In particular, one of the greatest challenges for English as a second language (ESL) children lies in their tendency to use everyday language (i.e., language acquired in informal situations, such as playing) in academic settings. Gibbons' work presents a research project that examines real-life content-based classroom interactions in which ESL children's English and content knowledge learning are facilitated. It makes an invaluable contribution to the effort to help ESL learners make a successful transition from everyday informal language to specialized academic registers.

The Role of Task‐Induced Involvement and Learner Proficiency in L2 Vocabulary Acquisition

Hulstijn and Laufer (2001) proposed a motivational‐cognitive construct of task‐induced involvement to account for variation in effectiveness among different vocabulary learning tasks. Building upon their original research, this study consisted of two experiments investigating the involvement load hypothesis in vocabulary learning. Experiment 1 compared the performance of 64 adult English as a second language (ESL) learners from a range of countries at two different proficiency levels (i.e., matriculated undergraduate students vs. students in an Intensive English Program) to ascertain the effectiveness of three vocabulary tasks with different levels of task‐induced involvement. Experiment 2 investigated whether two tasks hypothesized to represent the same level of task‐induced involvement would result in equivalent initial learning and retention of target words by 20 adult ESL learners at two different levels of proficiency. The results of Experiment 1 showed that a higher level of learner involvement during the task promoted more effective initial vocabulary learning and better retention of the new words. The findings of Experiment 2 indicated that when different tasks had the same involvement load, they resulted in similar amounts of initial vocabulary learning and retention of new words. The results of the two experiments are discussed in light of the involvement load hypothesis.

An Evaluation of Chatbots as Software Aids to Learning English as a Second Language

&lt;p&gt;'Chatbot' programs are pieces of software that can hold a conversation, or interact, in English. This paper explores the potential of chatbots for ESL (English as a Second Language) learning from a pedagogical perspective. From the command-line days of Eliza, chatbots have matured considerably – to the point where many chatbots now involve an avatar interface, with speech recognition also becoming available as a feature. The paper evaluates six chatbots currently available either online or for purchase. The evaluation examines chatbots from the perspective of their interfaces as a human-looking or sounding partner to chat with, as well as their usability as pieces of software suitable for ESL learners. To put some of these issues in perspective and provide insights into their use, the paper also reports on the use of some chatbots in&lt;br /&gt;the ESL classroom. The paper concludes with an analysis of chatbots currently available, noting that while chatbots have matured considerably since the early days of Eliza, they still have a long way to go before they can interact with students in the way that researchers such as Atwell (1999) envisage.&lt;/p&gt;

Evaluating the language resources of chatbots for their potential in English as a second language

AbstractThis paper investigates the linguistic worth of current ‘chatbot’ programs – software programs which attempt to hold a conversation, or interact, in English – as a precursor to their potential as an ESL (English as a second language) learning resource. After some initial background to the development of chatbots, and a discussion of the Loebner Prize Contest for the most ‘human’ chatbot (the ‘Turing Test’), the paper describes an in-depth study evaluating the linguistic accuracy of a number of chatbots available online. Since the ultimate purpose of the current study concerns chatbots' potential with ESL learners, the analysis of language embraces not only an examination of features of language from a native-speaker's perspective (the focus of the Turing Test), but also aspects of language from a second-language-user's perspective. Analyses indicate that while the winner of the 2005 Loebner Prize is the most able chatbot linguistically, it may not necessarily be the chatbot most suited to ESL learners. The paper concludes that while substantial progress has been made in terms of chatbots' language-handling, a robust ESL ‘conversation practice machine’ (Atwell, 1999) is still some way off being a reality.