Engine Design Research Articles

Breakup dynamics in a pressure-swirl injector for urea-water solution applications: A computational study

The co-optimization of in-cylinder combustion and after-treatment technology has become a major aspect in engine design and development, with the goal of meeting the increasingly restrictive emission regulations in the transportation industry. Selective Catalytic Reduction is a robust technology to control the emission of NOx, and the injection of urea in water solution is the exhaust tailpipe is a key aspect of its operation. The proposed work uses high-fidelity Computational Fluid Dynamics to characterize the atomization dynamics of the liquid jet in relevant cross-flow conditions. The study focuses on a commercial low-pressure (9 bar) pressure-swirl injector which is characterized in its internal geometry through high-resolution X-ray micro-computational tomography. The internal two-phase flow has been modeled according to the volume-of-fluid approach in a large eddy simulation framework and validated against near-nozzle X-ray radiography measurement. Moreover, characterizing the breakup dynamics for the swirling hollow cone formation, and assessing the influence of the cross-flow in the breakup dynamics was completed. The results have been reported proposing Re-Oh maps and probability density functions of the spray kinematics. Higher cross-flow momentum generates an increase in the jet intact length and a reduction of the liquid droplet diameters. The axial momentum of the jet is affected by the cross-flow already in the near-nozzle region, determining a relevant deviation of the spray velocities. This work aims to inform the initialization of Eulerian-Lagrangian spray models through the assignment of droplet kinematics and static one-way coupling between volume-of-fluid results and Lagrangian spray parcels, to be used for system-size domain simulations.

Spray characteristics and combustion mechanism influence on combustion stability of UDMH/NTO pre-combustor under external excitation

To study the combustion stability of liquid rocket engines with hypergolic propellant more comprehensively, external pressure pulse excitation was applied to the UDMH (unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine)/NTO (methylhydrazine) pre-combustor. The effects of pressure pulse intensity, spray characteristics (droplet diameter and spray cone angle), and combustion mechanism on combustion stability characteristic frequencies and attenuation characteristics after excitation were investigated. The simulation results show that all operation conditions capture the first three longitudinal frequencies of the pre-combustor, and all factors have a greater impact on frequencies with higher orders. Increasing the pulse intensity and reducing the droplet diameter are not conducive to combustion stability. The influence of the spray cone angle on the combustion stability is not monotonous. The pre-combustor has good stability when the spray cone angle is 70°. Different combustion mechanisms have a significant effect on the results before and after pressure pulses, and considering a more complete combustion process may increase the attenuation time in the pre-combustor. The obtained rules can provide a reference for the design and simulation of hypergolic liquid rocket engines, which is beneficial for predicting and evaluating the combustion stability of liquid rocket engines.

Virtual Development of a Single-Cylinder Hydrogen Opposed Piston Engine

A significant challenge in utilizing hydrogen in conventional internal combustion engines is achieving a balance between NOx emissions and brake power output. A lean premixed charge (Lambda ≈ 2.5) allows for efficient and stable combustion with minimal NOx emissions. However, this comes at the cost of reduced power density due to the higher air requirements of the thermodynamic process. While supercharging can mitigate this drawback, it introduces increased complexity, cost, and size. An intriguing alternative is the 2-stroke cycle, particularly in an opposed piston (OP) configuration. This study presents the virtual development of a single-cylinder 2-stroke OP engine with a total displacement of 0.95 L, designed to deliver 25 kW at 3000 rpm. Thanks to its compact size, high thermal efficiency, robustness, modularity, and low manufacturing cost, this engine is intended for use either as an industrial power unit or in combination with electric motors in hybrid vehicles. The overarching goal of this project is to demonstrate that internal combustion engines can offer a practical and cost-effective alternative to hydrogen fuel cells without significant penalties in terms of efficiency and pollutant emissions. The design of this novel engine started from scratch, and both 1D and 3D CFD simulations were employed, with particular focus on optimizing the cylinder’s geometry and developing an efficient low-pressure injection system. The numerical methodology was based on state-of-the-art commercial codes, in line with established engineering practices. The numerical results indicated that the optimized engine configuration slightly surpasses the target performance, achieving 29 kW at 3000 rpm, while maintaining near-zero NOx emissions (<20 ppm) and high brake thermal efficiency (~40%) over a wide power range. Additionally, the cost of this engine is projected to be lower than an equivalent 4-stroke engine, due to fewer components (e.g., no cylinder head, poppet valves, or camshafts) and a lighter construction.

Study of nonequilibrium regenerative heat exchange in positive displacement compressors

BACKGROUND: An important task in the design of thermal engines is the evaluation of power losses in different processes to determine the installation efficiency. One of the processes that generates power losses in the compressor is the process of nonequilibrium regenerative heat exchange (NRHE) of the compressed gas with the working cavity walls. This heat exchange occurs at a significant temperature difference, which can lead to noticeable power losses. Modern compressor design methods do not consider losses from nonequilibrium regenerative heat exchange and do not describe them separately from other types of losses. AIM: This study investigates the mechanism of losses during regenerative heat exchange between the gaseous working flow out and the working cavity walls and evaluates the scale of these losses. METHODS AND RESULTS: This work provides a qualitative description of the mechanism for the formation of losses from NRHE. As a result of solving the problem of unsteady thermal conductivity, an analytical expression for calculating such losses is derived based on the Gouy-Stodola theorem. CONCLUSIONS: The study revealed that power losses from NRHE account for a significant share in the overall balance of machine losses. Parameters influencing the magnitude of these losses were also determined, and recommendations were developed to reduce them.

Experimental Study on Ice Shedding Behaviors for Aero-Engine Fan Blade Icing during Ground Idle

Fan blade icing can affect efficiency and aerodynamic stability, and the shed ice may be sucked into the core of the engine, causing adverse effects or even damage to the compressor components. Ice accretion and shedding are among the key issues in engine design and tests. But they have not been clearly understood. In this work, ice shedding from rotating aero-engine fan blades during continuous icing is experimentally investigated under the relevant airworthiness requirements. The phenomena of icing and ice shedding under different ambient temperatures and engine speeds are recorded to obtain the ice-shedding time and the characteristic length of the residual ice. Force analysis is used to understand the corresponding behavior. The degree of ice-shedding balance Db is defined to explore the symmetry of ice shedding. The results show that the shedding time is significantly affected by the rotational speed, and the characteristic length will first shorten and then grow as the ambient temperature decreases. When the ice shedding is completed instantaneously, Db will show a violent shock. There is a critical ambient temperature, below which the ice accretion will worsen significantly as temperature decreases. For aero-engine fan blade icing tests during ground idle, the critical ambient temperature ranges from −5 ∘C to −9 ∘C. In order for the ice to shed faster, the engine speed has to reach a threshold. This study can shed light on the preliminary characteristics of ice shedding from rotating components and provide guidance and a data basis for the numerical simulation of fan blade icing and the design of an aero-engine.

Modified crystal plasticity constitutive model considering tensorial properties of microstructural evolution and creep life prediction model for Ni-based single crystal superalloy with film cooling hole

Accurate assessment of the creep life of film cooling hole structures is critical for long-life design and safe operation of aero engines and gas turbines. Firstly, through the high temperature creep experiment of nickel-based single crystal superalloy with film cooling hole, the microstructure evolution process under multiaxial stress state around film hole is characterized. Then, considering the directional effect of rafting structure and the influence of multiaxial stress, a fourth-order tensor is used to describe the evolution of γ phase width, and the microstructure evolution model accounting for multi-axial stress states is established. The microstructure evolution is coupled into the crystal plasticity constitutive model by Orowan stress. Meanwhile, based on continuous damage mechanics, a new multiaxial damage evolution law is established by introducing a multiaxial ductility factor into the constitutive model. The improved crystal plasticity constitutive model can effectively predict the microstructural evolution under multiaxial stress conditions. Furthermore, the combination of the modified crystal plasticity constitutive model and the critical distance method considering stress gradients is used for life prediction of film cooling hole structures. The prediction results show the effectiveness and necessity of considering the microstructure evolution in the life prediction.

Prediction and Simulation of Biodiesel Combustion in Diesel Engines: Evaluating Physicochemical Properties, Performance, and Emissions

Environmental and energy sustainability concerns have catalyzed a global transition toward renewable biofuel alternatives. Among these, biodiesel stands out as a promising substitute for conventional diesel in compression-ignition engines, providing compatibility without requiring modifications to engine design. A comprehensive understanding of biodiesel’s physical properties is crucial for accurately modeling fuel spray, atomization, combustion, and emissions in diesel engines. This study focuses on predicting the physical properties of PODL20 and EB100, including liquid viscosity, density, vapor pressure, latent heat of vaporization, thermal conductivity, gas diffusion coefficients, and surface tension, all integrated into the CONVERGE CFD fuel library for improved combustion simulations. Subsequently, numerical simulations were conducted using the predicted properties of the biodiesels, validated by experimental in-cylinder pressure data. The prediction models demonstrated excellent alignment with the experimental results, confirming their accuracy in simulating spray dynamics, combustion processes, turbulence, ignition, and emissions. Notably, significant improvements in key combustion parameters, such as cylinder pressure and heat release rate, were recorded with the use of biodiesels. Specifically, the heat release rates for PODL20 and EB100 reached 165.74 J/CA and 140.08 J/CA, respectively, compared to 60.2 J/CA for conventional diesel fuel. Furthermore, when evaluating both soot and NOx emissions, EB100 displayed a more balanced performance, achieving a significant reduction in soot emissions of 34.21% alongside a moderate increase in NOx emissions of 45.5% compared to diesel fuel. In comparison to PODL20, reductions of 20.4% in soot emissions and 3% in NOx emissions were also noted.

Investigating Methods to Generate Models for Turbine Maps Using Machine Learning

<div>For turbocharged engine design, manufacturer-provided turbocharger maps are typically used in simulation analysis to understand key engine performance metrics. Each data point in the turbocharger map is generated by physically testing the hardware or through CFD analysis—both of which are time-consuming and expensive. As such, only a modest set of data can be generated, and each data map must be interpolated and extrapolated to create a smooth surface, which can then be used for engine simulation analysis.</div> <div>In this article, five different machine learning algorithms are described and compared to experimental data for the prediction of Cummins Turbo Technologies (CTT) fixed geometry turbines within and outside of the experimental data range. The results were validated against xxx-provided test data. The results demonstrate that the Bayesian neural networks performed the best, realizing a 0.5%–1% error band. In addition, it is extrapolatable when suitable manually created extra data points are incorporated within the dataset at low and high turbine speeds.</div>

Unraveling Chain Branching in Cool Flames.

In cool flames, autoxidation of organic compounds forms alkyl hydroperoxides and ketohydroperoxides, and this controls the critical rate of chain branching, but there have been large uncertainties in the decomposition rate constants. We synthesized a series of hydroperoxides and measured their decomposition rate constants in pyrolysis experiments by spray-vaporization jet-stirred-reactor synchrotron vacuum ultraviolet photoionization mass spectrometry. Structural variation of the hydroperoxides, including alkyl, cycloalkyl, aromatic, and heterocyclic functionalities, has only a slight effect on their decomposition rate constants. Calculated rate constants are in good agreement with the experiment. The rate constant of ketohydroperoxide decomposition was obtained by theoretical calculation of 3-hydroperoxy butanal and tested by the pyrolysis of synthesized 3-hydroperoxy-3-phenylpropionate. The rate constant of ketohydroperoxide decomposition is close to that of alkyl hydroperoxides. The new chain-branching rate constants improves the cool-flame kinetic model, which is essential for removing discrepancies in model predictions and for the design of high-efficiency and low-emission engines.

State‐of‐the‐Art 3DES Pipelined Cryptographic Engine Design Against Side‐Channel Attacks

ABSTRACTIn this paper, a high‐speed, low‐latency, and high‐security hardware‐implemented triple data encryption standard (3DES) cryptographic algorithm is proposed for securing data privacy. In order to achieve a high throughput for the 3DES architecture, the whole circuit is optimized with a 24‐stage pipelined design at first. For breaking the correlation between the processed data and power dissipation of the 3DES circuit against differential power analysis (DPA) attacks, two pseudo‐random number generators (PRNGs) are embedded to randomly alter the number of pipelined stages and data substitution locations within the 3DES circuit, respectively. Under such a circumstance, the proposed 3DES circuit is able to achieve high performance and strong robustness against DPA attacks without causing much overhead. As shown in the results, under the synthesis of SMIC 14‐nm process design kits (PDK), the clock frequency, area, power dissipation, and throughput of the proposed 3DES circuit, respectively, are achieved as 1.2 GHz, 26,435 m2, 21.05 mW, and 64 Gbps. Furthermore, when DPA attacks are executed on the proposed 3DES circuit, the corresponding secret key cannot be revealed even if 2 million plaintexts are enabled. In contrast, only 40,000 plaintexts are adequate to disclose the secret key of a regular pipelined 3DES circuit.

Investigation of the optimal timing and amount of fuel injection on the efficiency and emissions of a diesel engine through experimentation and numerical analysis

The purpose of this study is to investigate the performance, in-cylinder combustion, and emissions of the MTE660E heavy-duty diesel engine using 3D CFD simulation. The CFD simulation model based on AVL FIRE software was developed to numerically investigate the performance, in-cylinder combustion, and emissions of the MTE660E engine. The AVL model was validated against empirical data. The 6-cylinder MTE660E engine was operated under a constant excess air ratio of 1.75 and at 1600 rpm engine speed. The geometry and lattice design of the MTE660E engine were simulated to provide a computationally efficient approach. The AVL model was validated against experimental data and the error between the measured and calculated value of combustion characteristics and emissions was acceptable (R2> 90 %), error <5.6 %). Design Expert software was used to optimize the dependent variables (peak chamber temperature, brake mean effective pressure, engine torque, engine thermal efficiency and emissions of NOx) according to the studied variables (injection time and fuel injection quantity) based on response surface methodology. The results show that the recommended injecting time of 342 °C and the specific amount of fuel lead to better combustion efficiency, resulting in high engine performance and low emissions. The specific fuel consumption was highest at 2200 rpm with a 50 % load, while the lowest SFC level was observed at 1750 rpm with a 100 % load. The maximum value of NOx emissions was observed at full load. The findings show that the optimization of the injection timing and fuel injection quantity can effectively enhance the performance of the MTE660E engine. The study provides valuable insights into improving combustion efficiency, resulting in greater performance and reduced emissions without requiring expensive overhaul. It has potential applications in automotive and commercial transportation industries, thereby reducing fuel consumption and emissions.

0D-1D coupled method for performance design and analysis of adaptive cycle engine - Modeling, simulation and validation

0D-1D coupled method for performance design and analysis of adaptive cycle engine - Modeling, simulation and validation

A Study on the Effects of Preheating Thevetia Peruviana Biodiesel on the Performance of CI Engine

Biodiesel is becoming increasingly popular as a substitute fuel for compression ignition (CI) engines because of its comparable characteristics to those of diesel and its little environmental impact. The development of diesel engines that run on biodiesel and reduce emissions of pollutants, while also improving thermal efficiency, are key concerns in engine design. The most crucial prerequisites for achieving these are precise and quick air-fuel mixing. However, biodiesel's viscosity is considered a drawback for its application as a substitute fuel for IC engines. Heating can greatly lower the viscosity, which can eliminate the problems caused by excessive viscosity during injection. Hence in this effort, preheated Thevetia Peruviana biodiesel (Methyl Ester) is utilized. The present research aims to examine how preheating biodiesel affects the operation of a direct injection (DI) diesel engine. Engine tests were done on a stationary, single-cylinder, constant speed, naturally aspirated, water-cooled CI engine with a preheated 20% blend of Thevetia Peruviana biodiesel (PH-TPME20 with a conventional jerk type injection system. Engine performance of preheated TPME20 was compared with the unheated 20% blend of TPME and diesel. Preheating reduced the viscosity of the oil, which resulted in a noticeable improvement in engine performance. A considerable drop in emission levels from the engine exhaust gas was noted. The preheating improved combustion characteristics i.e. it lowered the delay period and resulted in quicker release of heat because of improved fuel-air mixing, fuel vaporization, and atomization.

Методика оценки экологического эффекта от применения биотоплив

Purpose: the fight for ecology in the transport sector is ensured by improving the design of vehicles and engines, the working processes of internal combustion engines, as well as the use of alternative fuels. To determine the rational use of biofuels in vehicles, it is necessary to assess the environmental effect that will be achieved when using them. Methods: the existing methods of estimating exhaust gas emissions from motor vehicles are considered. Based on them, improvements have been made, which include the introduction of additional coefficients that take into account changes in the environmental load depending on the percentage of biofuels mixed with traditional hydrocarbon fuels. Results: the calculation of the environmental effect from the use of biofuels was carried out using the example of adding biodiesel to petroleum diesel fuel, for which, based on statistical data from the US Environmental Protection Agency and data, WE established dependences of changes in annual emissions of harmful substances and carbon dioxide for a heavy-duty cargo vehicle. In addition to the calculation, the article presents graphs of emissions of harmful substances, taking into account their relative aggressiveness and the amount of carbon dioxide released during the combustion of biodiesel mixtures. Practical significance: The proposed method for calculating the environmental effect makes it possible to estimate the volume of emissions of harmful substances and carbon dioxide depending on the concentration of biofuels mixed with traditional fuels. Such an approach can provide an overall picture of the effect of using biodiesel, and at the same time, the coefficients used need to be clarified.

The experimental investigation of performance behaviors of a beta-type Stirling engine with bell-crank motion mechanism

The current study aims to develop a novel power generation system that is capable of working with a Stirling engine. Within this context, a β-type Stirling engine design has been created with a bell-crank motion mechanism and a 365 cm3 swept volume. The engine has been manufactured, and then a detailed assessment has been conducted to determine the impact of the motion mechanism on engine performance characteristics. The designed and manufactured engine has been tested using a range of working fluids, such as air, argon, carbon dioxide, helium, and nitrogen gases. The performance tests of this engine have been carried out at 1000 K (±10) heater and 300 K (±5) coolant temperatures. Based on the outcomes of the experimental studies, the highest engine power and torque values have been obtained at a charge pressure of 4 bar using helium gas, with 143.5 W at 267 rpm and 7.75 Nm at 100 rpm, respectively. Moreover, the maximum engine power values obtained from other tests with nitrogen, air, carbon dioxide and argon gases have been compared with helium gas. Helium gas has been found to outperform nitrogen, air, carbon dioxide, and argon gases in tests by 67.3%, 73.9%, 197.1%, and 200.2%, respectively. Finally, the highest thermal efficiency value has been obtained with helium gas as 48.7% at a charge pressure of 4 bar.

Finite element analysis of thermal barrier properties under relevance vector machine in coated pistons and blades

Internal Combustion (IC) engines require Thermal Barrier Coatings (TBCs) to preserve their effectiveness and performance. By coating engine parts with TBCs, thermal fatigue and environmental heat loss may be minimised. To reduce heat loss in IC engines during the combustion stage, piston thermal barrier coating is extremely beneficial. Additionally, it is well known that power plants with higher energy efficiency tend to operate their gas turbines at higher operating temperatures. To produce TBCs for the thermal design of gas turbines and diesel engines with higher performance, an in-depth study on the thermophysical properties of TBCs is required. This article presents an experimental investigation into the combined effect of gas turbine blades and diesel engine pistons coated with a heat barrier, utilising two distinct Thermal Barrier Coatings. Initially, numerical calculations are used to assess the wall heat transfer model’s ability to control temperature and density. The piston and blade top surfaces received plasma-sprayed, Yttria-Stabilised Zirconia (YSZ) with different material combinations on the piston and blades are evaluated. The Finite Element Method is developed for the coating of the ideal thickness to analyse the failure mechanism of the TBC sample. To evaluate the fatigue residual lifespan of TBC pistons, as well as blades in high-power engines, the authors also created a relevant vector Machine-based lifetime prediction model. The CO, HC and NOx emissions, as well as the fuel depletion and braking thermal efficiency, are used to calculate the performance analysis of the coated piston and blades. The results demonstrated improved thermal process endurance and decreased thermal conductivity by 28% when compared to YSZ using the RVM method respectively.

Performance Analysis and Emission Characteristics for Butanol Blended Diesel fuel

This experimental study is done on a single cylinder DICI engine to evaluate its performance and emission for different ratio of butanol in diesel. At lower loading BTE and BSFC of the butanol-diesel blend were better than pure diesel. Blend with 40% v/v of butanol was 17.54 % more efficient than pure diesel at 16.67% loading, 12%v/v of butanol in diesel was around 3% more efficient than diesel at 50% loading. BSFC for diesel with 12%v/v of butanol was similar to diesel up to 50% loading. The investigation predicts that at lower loadings butanol promotes the premixing quality with increased oxygen contained in charge and at higher loading due to low calorific (CV) of charge performance of the test fuel. NOx emission of the butanol blend fuels is lower than the diesel and reduces with increase in butanol contained in diesel. NOx was least for B20D80 and B40D60 fuel at lower and higher loading, respectively. NOx emissions for B20D80 and B40D60 were 33.60% and 27.78 % lower than Pure diesel at lower and full loading, respectively. HC and CO emission butanol-diesel blend were lower than pure diesel at higher loading and CO emission for the blend were higher than diesel at lower loading, which may be implemented in the design of new engines.

Analysis of unstable combustion caused by the Gas–Liquid two-phase flow in small hypergolic propellant engines

Hypergolic bipropellant engines are extensively used in spacecraft operations. In these engines, the combustion reaction is initiated by the impinging jets of the oxidizer and fuel in the liquid phase. The most commonly used hypergolic fuels, hydrazine and monomethylhydrazine, as well as the oxidizer, nitrogen tetroxide, are all in liquid state under room temperature and atmospheric pressure conditions. However, as these engines are operated in a space vacuum, a portion of the propellant inevitably evaporates because of low-pressure boiling immediately after engine start-up. The mixing of gas with liquid propellant results in unstable combustion, and minimizing this effect is critical for the engine design. Particularly, preventing high-frequency combustion instability is essential as it can be detrimental to the engine. This paper presents a mechanism that activates high-frequency combustion instability, realized by analyzing the pressure within the combustion chamber during artificially induced unstable combustion. Furthermore, the methodology for establishing operational constraints based on the proposed mechanism is clarified, along with the method for collecting test data. The study findings provide important indicators for the design criteria of bipropellant engines, contributing to the diversification and complexity of space development programs.

Prediction of combustion pressure with deep learning using flame images

Deep learning methods provide data-driven techniques for handling large amounts of combustion data, thus finding the hidden patterns underlying these data. This study aims to predict combustion pressure from flame images, which provide more comprehensive information about the combustion process than traditional pressure sensors. The flame images were captured from a single-cylinder 4-stroke optical gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine at 1000 rpm, 5.7 bar IMEP, and stoichiometric combustion conditions using a high-speed camera. To achieve this prediction, we employed five different models: EfficientNetB4, ResNet50, Ensemble Adversarial Inception ResNet, convolutional neural network (CNN), and CNN-XGBoost. The training dataset comprised 1350 flame images captured from a single-cylinder optical GDI engine across different combustion stages. To ensure robustness, 150 images were used for validation. The models were subjected to a testing set of 4500 flame images obtained from different cycles, to evaluate how well they could perform on new, unseen data. The results showed that EfficientNetB4 achieved an impressive R2 of 0.94 and a low RMSE of 0.70 compared to other tested models. Saliency analysis revealed that the model focuses on subtle flame characteristics and areas without intense flames, which suggests that it detects features invisible to the human eye. Additionally, the proposed deep learning approach is applied for the sake of monitoring cycle-to-cycle variations based on in-cylinder flame propagation where it is found that it produces high accuracy compared to those obtained through pressure sensors. Our findings are intended to advance the adoption of machine learning approaches for assisting in engine design and optimization.

Teaching Aero-Engine Performance: From Analytics to Hands-On Exercises Using Gas Turbine Performance Software

Abstract In this paper, we present an approach for teaching turbojet engine performance that combines mathematical analysis with the use of performance software to provide students with a comprehensive and in-depth understanding of engine performance and how it is affected by design parameter choices. In the first part, we present the derivation of a universally valid analytical model for turbojet engine cycle design, which is the basis of the propulsion courses at RWTH Aachen University. The analytical model allows for the calculation of specific thrust as well as thermal and propulsive efficiencies as a function of pressure ratios and burner exit temperature. These are all expressed as differentiable functions. Their mathematical extremes form a basis for examining the intricate relationships in turbojet engine design. In the second part, we move from theory to practice. We utilize the GasTurb software, computing turbojet engine cycles for a wide range of cycle design parameters. The analytically derived trends are validated and errors introduced by simplifications are assessed. Differences between the analytical approach and software-based performance simulations of real engines, like temperature-dependent gas properties and secondary air systems, are emphasized and discussed, thus providing a bridge to real-world applications. In summary, this paper describes a two-step approach to teaching turbojet engine design using analytics and performance software. Each approach alone can be used to enrich and extend existing performance courses. Combining the approaches has significant benefits, improving understanding and inspiring students to pursue further research in the field of propulsion.