Large-scale Energy Storage Research Articles

Dry‐Pressed Fabrication of Lithium‐Ion Electrodes Over 500 μm Thick

AbstractIn stationary storage, thick electrodes can minimize inactive material components to increase energy density and decrease cost, but they face challenges in performance and manufacturability. This work discusses a method to fabricate thick‐format lithium‐ion electrodes and a model to explore transport constraints for functional thick electrodes. Thick lithium iron phosphate (LFP) electrodes were fabricated using a solvent‐free pressing process that adopts methods from alkaline electrode manufacturing for low‐cost scale‐up. LFP electrodes with thicknesses up to 1 mm and capacities up to ~15 mAh/cm2 exhibited good rate performance (~98 % utilization at C/10, ~95 % at C/5, ~76 % at C/2). A physics‐based LFP half‐cell model was developed to aid in characterizing transport within these thick electrodes, revealing opportunities to further improve performance by decreasing tortuosity.

In-situ Constructed Core-shell Catalyst Enabling Subzero Capacity Unlocking of Cost-effective and Long-life Vanadium Flow Batteries.

Vanadium flow battery (VFB) promises a route for achieving grid-scale power storage by harnessing renewable energy sources. However, the sluggish reaction kinetics of vanadium redox couples and serious hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) still restrict the further development of VFB. Addressing these challenges requires not only effective solutions but also ones that are cost-efficient and scalable to meet the demands of affordable energy storage. Here, we present an in-situ constructed Cu@Cu6Sn5 core-shell catalyst by incorporating metal ions into the electrolyte. The Cu core, encapsulated by the Cu6Sn5 shell, forms an excellent conductive pathway to the graphite felt electrode. Charge transfer between Cu and Sn within Cu6Sn5 shell accelerates the reaction kinetics of V2+/V3+ redox couple and selectively inhibits HER, as confirmed through in-situ weak measurement imaging method. The Cu@Cu6Sn5 battery achieves a peak power density of 1119.1 mW cm-2 at 1350 mA cm-2, operates stably for 1200 cycles without catalyst failure, and is available over a wide-temperature range. Furthermore, we identify a demand of subzero capacity unlocking. Achieving a 23.4% theoretical capacity unlocking at -10 °C with a cut-off voltage up to 1.75 V, bespeaking a crucial breakthrough toward cost-effective VFB.

Mitigating Zinc Dendrite Formation and Parasitic Side Reactions in Aqueous Zn-Ion Batteries Via Laser-Assisted Carbonization of Cu-PANI Films on Zn Anodes.

Aqueous zinc-ion batteries (ZIBs) are gaining attraction for large-scale energy storage systems due to their high safety, significant capacity, cost-effectiveness, and environmental friendliness. On the other hand, the development of aqueous ZIBs is restricted by the limited practical application of zinc (Zn) because of the high reactivity of Zn in aqueous electrolytes, which results in the severe dendrite growth and parasitic side reactions such as hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). In this study, heteroatom-doped carbon porous surface modification by laser-assisted carbonization of copper (Cu) doped polyaniline (PANI) is designed and fabricated on top of the Zn metal anode (c-Cu-PANI/Zn). The c-Cu-PANI surface-modified Zn anodes exhibit high electrochemical stability and performance during the Zn plating-stripping cycles and suppress the dendrite formation. The symmetrical cell and half-cell with the c-Cu-PANI/Zn anodes exhibit stable cycles for 6000h and 100% Coulombic efficiency for 2500 cycles, respectively. Moreover, the c-Cu-PANI/Zn║V2O5 cell delivers a high specific capacity of 319 mAh g-1 at 0.2 A g-1, which is significantly higher than that of the bare Zn║V2O5 cell (240 mAh g-1). It is believed that applying c-Cu-PANI as a surface modification can enhance the stability and reversibility of the Zn anodes, therefore accelerating the commercialization of ZIBs.

A Review on Thermal Management of Li-ion Battery: from Small-Scale Battery Module to Large-Scale Electrochemical Energy Storage Power Station

A Review on Thermal Management of Li-ion Battery: from Small-Scale Battery Module to Large-Scale Electrochemical Energy Storage Power Station

Strategic deployment of energy storage systems in the Indian power grid

PurposeThe transition from centralized thermal power plants to distributed renewable energy sources complicates the balance between power supply and load demand in electrical networks. Energy storage systems (ESS) offer a viable solution to this challenge. This research aims to analyze the factors influencing the implementation of ESS in the Indian smart grid.Design/methodology/approach To analyze the factors affecting ESS deployment in the grid, the SAP-LAP framework (situation-actor-process and learning-action-performance) integrated with e-IRP (efficient-interpretive ranking process) was used. The variables of SAP-LAP elements were selected from expert opinion and a literature review. Here, e-IRP was utilized to prioritize elements of SAP-LAP (actors in terms of processes and actions in terms of performance).Findings This analysis prioritized five stakeholders in the Indian power industry for energy storage implementation: government agencies/policymakers, ESS technology developers/manufacturers, private players, research and development/academic institutions, and contractors. Furthermore, the study prioritized the necessary actions that these stakeholders must take.Research limitations/implications The study’s findings help identify actors and manage different actions in implementing grid energy storage integration. Ranking these variables would help develop a strategic roadmap for ESS deployment and decisions about adopting new concepts.Originality/value It is one of the first attempts to analyze factors influencing ESS implementation in the power grid. Here, qualitative and quantitative methodologies are used to identify and prioritize various aspects of ESS implementation. As a result, the stakeholder can grasp the concept much more quickly.

Lithium-Ion Battery Degradation in Grid Applications: Analysis through Frequency- and Time-Domain Parameterization

Lithium-ion batteries have a great potential in stationary energy storage, both for first- and second life, but the understanding and tools to evaluate cell degradation needs to be improved. In this study, the degradation of batteries subjected to three types of stationary services, as well as the repurposing of cells from more demanding to a milder application is investigated. The milder cycle is frequency regulation with a maximum C-rate of 1.5 C (FR1.5C) and the more demanding cycles peak shaving with a C-rate of 1 C (PS1C) and FR and PS combined (FRPS2C). The main driver for accelerated capacity loss was identified as the state-of-charge (SOC) change during operation, increasing the rate of degradation for PS and FRPS. The cell impedance was measured and fitted to a physics-based model to deconvolute the sources of polarization increase. A tortuosity increase in the negative electrode was seen for all cells, as well as a resistance increase. FRPS2C and PS1C further showed a decrease in the electrolyte mass transport properties. When repurposed to the milder FR1.5C application, PS1C showed a clear decrease in capacity loss rate while more heterogeneous degradation might be the reason for a higher rate of degradation for the repurposed FRPS2C cell.

Binder-Coated Carbon Cloth Electrodes for All-Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries

Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) are a promising solution for integrating intermittent renewable energy sources into the existing power grid. However, enhancing the electrochemical performance of VRFBs is critical for their widespread adoption in grid-scale energy storage. This study investigates the impact of adding a porous binder to a carbon-cloth electrode, with a focus on optimizing thermal activation conditions. The electrochemical performance of the binder-coated electrodes compared to uncoated electrodes is evaluated through electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, polarization curve measurements, and charge-discharge cycling. The surface morphology and structural integrity of the binder-coated electrodes at each activation stage are examined using various material characterization techniques to assess the effects of thermal activation. The results are benchmarked against the experiments using non-coated electrodes to determine the performance improvements offered by the binder coating. Notably, the study reveals that binder-coated electrodes exhibit significantly lower resistance and improved efficiency compared to their uncoated counterparts, with optimal activation conditions enhancing performance metrics crucial for VRFB applications. These findings provide valuable insights for further optimizing electrode design and activation strategies, advancing the development of more efficient VRFB systems for large-scale energy storage.

In-situ micro-battery etching induced 3D Zn with amorphous interfacial coating for high-stable Zn metal batteries

Zn metal is one of the most prospective anodes for large-scale energy storage owing to its high volumetric capacity and safety. However, commercialization of the aqueous Zn metal batteries (AZMBs) is impeded by uneven Zn deposition and undesirable reaction issues. Herein, an in-situ micro-battery etching strategy is proposed to realize surface coating and 3D Zn construction simultaneously. It is worth noting that the amorphous Zn2+-intercalated ammonium vanadate (A-ZNVO) coating with abundant oxygen vacancy could not only inhibit the severe interface parasitic reactions but also facilitate the quick transmission of Zn2+. Beyond that, the 3D porous structure could reduce the local current density and induce uniform Zn deposition. As a result, such 3D Zn@A-ZNVO electrode ensures a remarkably long cycle lifespan of over 3700 h when a current density of 1 mA cm−2 is applied. By contrast, the bare Zn could only cycle for 110 h and encounter short-circuit subsequently. Meanwhile, the 3D Zn@A-ZNVO anode also exhibits superior rate capability and above-average Coulombic efficiency (99.55 %). Moreover, the full cell could retain 85.2 % of discharge capacity even after 900 cycles under 1 A g−1. This facile and multifunctional strategy offers a unique insight into the modification of metal-based electrodes.

Intelligent fuzzy-PSO based grid connected solar EV charging station for electric buses to enhance stability and energy management

Abstract Modern power networks are relying more and more on Distributed Generation (DG) and solar energy-powered Electric Bus (EB) charging stations; nevertheless, controlling the charging process under situations of peak EB load and variable solar irradiation presents considerable hurdles. This study presents a coordinated control approach that maximizes energy distribution for solar (PV)-based EB charging stations by using an intelligent energy management system (IEMS). Through the analysis of load demand and meteorological data in real time, the IEMS optimizes PV generation and grid power consumption, thereby halving peak power demand, minimizing system losses, and easing distribution grid stress. In order to enable dynamic modifications to the energy flow between PV power, the grid, and battery storage, the method integrates an adaptive neuro-based fuzzy control system that anticipates solar energy generation and predicts EB load demands. Furthermore, to balance power distribution between battery and ultracapacitor systems and control energy storage in ultracapacitors, a fuzzy inference system optimized using Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is utilized. This prolongs battery life and guarantees effective energy management. The overall performance of the IEMS is improved by the fuzzy logic controller, which produces output signals that specify the best power distribution for any energy storage system. Digital simulations and a real-time hardware-in-loop experimental setup are used to validate the effectiveness of the proposed system, which shows notable gains in energy management, grid stability, and system efficiency. In order to improve intelligent energy management in grid-connected solar-powered systems, this study offers a viable method for incorporating renewable energy sources into EB charging stations.

Barrier materials integrated with gas regulation function are used to reduce the explosion risk of battery systems

Large-capacity lithium iron phosphate batteries are widely used in energy storage stations and electric vehicles due to their high cost-effectiveness and long lifespan. However, research shows that the gases generated during thermal runaway are mainly combustible, which may lead to fires or even explosions. Nevertheless, within the millimeter-scale confined space of a battery pack, effective solutions are scarce, making it challenging to simultaneously suppress kilowatt-level heat transfer and dilute the accumulated combustible gases. This research has developed a multifunctional fire shield with capabilities of “low-temperature heat conduction, medium-temperature heat absorption, high-temperature thermal insulation, and gas regulation.” The material is composed of hydrogel, aluminum hydroxide, ceramic fiber, and ammonium bicarbonate. In the low-temperature range, it exhibits an excellent thermal conductivity (0.58 W·m−1·K−1), capable of maintaining the battery module’s operating temperature within a reasonable range. In the medium to high-temperature range, its thermal conductivity rapidly decreases (0.04 W·m−1·K−1), and with its high phase change enthalpy (1727 J/g), the material can suppress the thermal propagation of a 100 Ah lithium iron phosphate battery module. This material starts to release CO2 at 90℃. In a confined space, the CO2 mixes uniformly with the gases generated during the thermal runaway process of the battery, reducing the risk of these gases (increasing the lower explosion limit by 44 % and reducing the maximum laminar flame speed by 58 %). Therefore, the multifunctional fire shield demonstrates exceptional heat conduction, heat absorption, thermal insulation, and gas regulation performance. This research provides new insights for the safety design of battery systems.

Scientometric Insights into Rechargeable Solid-State Battery Developments

Solid-state batteries (SSBs) offer significant improvements in safety, energy density, and cycle life over conventional lithium-ion batteries, with promising applications in electric vehicles and grid storage due to their non-flammable electrolytes and high-capacity lithium metal anodes. However, challenges such as interfacial resistance, low ionic conductivity, and manufacturing scalability hinder their commercial viability. This study conducts a comprehensive scientometric analysis, examining 131 peer-reviewed SSB research articles from IEEE Xplore and Web of Science databases to identify key thematic areas and bibliometric patterns driving SSB advancements. Through a detailed analysis of thematic keywords and publication trends, this study uniquely identifies innovations in high-ionic-conductivity solid electrolytes and advanced cathode materials, providing actionable insights into the persistent challenges of interfacial engineering and scalable production, which are critical to SSB commercialization. The findings offer a roadmap for targeted research and strategic investments by researchers and industry stakeholders, addressing gaps in long-term stability, scalable production, and high-performance interface optimization that are currently hindering widespread SSB adoption. The study reveals key advances in electrolyte interface stability and ion transport mechanisms, identifying how solid-state electrolyte modifications and cathode coating methods improve charge cycling and reduce dendrite formation, particularly for high-energy-density applications. By mapping publication growth and clustering research themes, this study highlights high-impact areas such as cycling stability and ionic conductivity. The insights from this analysis guide researchers toward impactful areas, such as electrolyte optimization and scalable production, and provide industry leaders with strategies for accelerating SSB commercialization to extend electric vehicle range, enhance grid storage, and improve overall energy efficiency.

Prosumers: Grid vs. individual storage

Prosumers: Grid vs. individual storage

Optimal planning for high renewable energy integration considering demand response, uncertainties, and operational performance flexibility

The operational performance of the grid needs to be considered and incorporated with other verified system flexibility measures, such as energy storage system and demand response, when planning a hybrid renewable energy system with a high fraction of renewable energy sources. Therefore, this study developed an integrated model that considers the effects of time-of-use demand response and risk-based uncertainty analysis on the operational performance of a grid-connected hybrid energy system for high renewable power penetration. A multi-stage approach for optimal scheduling of the energy systems with time-of-use pricing considering uncertainties’ impacts on grid and energy storage systems operations is modeled. Techno-economic metrics are developed to assess the decision-making effectiveness of the energy system planning and grid operation under four scenarios based on the information gap decision theory to quantify the energy system and grid operation performance flexibility. The considered scenarios are without and with demand response using risk-neutral, risk-averse, and risk-seeking strategies. The analysis of the results indicates that the risk-averse approach achieves the best techno-economic tradeoff, guaranteeing improved technical performances compared to the other risk strategies for uncertainty management in renewable power outputs and grid operational performances within the cost deviation tolerance limit. The risk-averse strategy further justified the substantial inclusion of energy storage and the adoption of the demand response to provide better operational flexibility to ensure improved grid performance, as seen in the reduced grid loss and improved voltage profile with higher power contribution from the RES. Significantly, the considered model can help system planners manage the tradeoff for efficient system performance under substantial renewable energy integration, considering the impacts of uncertainties.

Numerical experiments on hydrogen storage characterization in porous media using elastic full-waveform inversion

In recent years, underground hydrogen storage (UHS) has garnered significant attention as a concept for large-scale energy storage. Developing hydrogen characterization and monitoring methods specific to each target geologic formation (e.g., salt caverns, reservoirs in depleted oil/gas fields, and saline aquifers in porous media) is crucial for the safe operation of hydrogen storage. However, due to the limited number of actual operations and laboratory experiments (e.g., rock physics for hydrogen) related to UHS in porous media, the specifications required for seismic monitoring (e.g., P-/S-wave velocity and density changes generated by hydrogen injection) are not yet fully understood. A recent study showed the results of laboratory experiments on cyclic UHS in porous media. The experiments demonstrated that P-wave velocity decreases nonlinearly with increasing hydrogen saturation in sandstone specimens, with a reduction of up to 3.5% observed at 36% hydrogen saturation. This study presents hydrogen characterization in porous media with conditions similar to the experiment using elastic full-waveform inversion (FWI) for time-lapse surface seismic data. The shot data are generated by seismic forward modeling for several synthetic subsurface models that incorporate a hydrogen plume. The hydrogen plume assumes four velocity-density scenarios, partially based on the laboratory study results. Numerical experiments are conducted to explore the validity and challenges of hydrogen characterization using elastic FWI.

Improving both energetic and kinetic performances of osmotic battery for grid energy storage

Osmotic battery (OB), alternating the operation of reverse osmosis (RO) for charging and pressure-retarded osmosis (PRO) for discharging, is an emerging grid-scale energy storage system (ESS) that offers complementary advantages over other existing grid ESSs. OB utilizes osmotic pressure difference of two solutions as a media for energy storage. However, OB faces the issue of energetic-kinetic trade-off generally applicable in all the ESSs. This study aims to quantitatively analyze this trade-off in OB and to develop effective strategies to address this issue. Our analyses suggest that this trade-off can be addressed by (1) raising the initial high-salinity solution concentration (cHS,0), and (2) using more water permeable osmotic membranes with a suitable high-salinity solution. For example, increasing the cHS,0 from 1.2 M to 2.4 M increases energy density from 0.5 to >1.0 kWh·m−3 along with an enhanced power density and a stable high roundtrip efficiency (RTE) above 66 %, albeit requiring membranes with substantially improved mechanical strength. Furthermore, using high-permeance nanofiltration-type osmotic membranes with divalent high-salinity solution could improve the peak power density to above 50 W·m−2 while maintaining energetic performance. This study not only offers effective strategies to ease the energetic-kinetic trade-off but also recommends important directions for developing future osmotic membranes for OB.

Enhanced Kullback–Leibler Divergence Based Pilot Protection for Lines Connecting Battery Energy Storage Stations

In light of the challenges faced by existing protection methods when battery energy storage station (BESS) and various nonideal conditions emerge, enhanced Kullback–Leibler divergence-based time-domain pilot protection is put forward in this article. Given the discrepancy in current waveforms between internal and external faults, KLD is employed to quantify the degree of similarity between two current waveforms, enabling the accurate distinction between internal and external faults. To eliminate the asymmetry of KLD, improved KLD(IKLD) is introduced. Whereafter, a technique is proposed to convert the current sampling sequence into a probability distribution that can be utilized by IKLD. To counteract the negative influence of current transformer(CT) saturation on IKLD-based protection, the time-domain waveform features of summation current are adequately employed to develop an enhanced KLD(EKLD). Further, high and low thresholds are legitimately designed to ensure both dependability and security. The flowchart of EKLD-based pilot protection is described, and its effectiveness is extensively validated by variation in fault resistance, location, type and operating mode of BESS using PSCAD and a hardware-in-the-loop(HIL) testing platform. Additionally, proposed protection outclasses power frequency component-based current differential protection and some up-to-date presented time-domain protection methods.

Fatigue fracture behaviors and damage evolution of coal samples treated with drying–wetting cycles investigated by acoustic emission and nuclear magnetic resonance

Constructing pumped-storage power stations using underground reservoirs in mines offers a promising method for large-scale energy storage. Watertight coal pillars have the potential to destabilize under the mine-shock cyclic dynamic loading and the drying–wetting cycles (DWCs). Understanding the fatigue damage mechanism and failure precursors in watertight coal pillars under cyclic dynamic loading disturbances in overburdened rock strata has become challenging. This study investigated the fatigue fracture behavior and precursor information of coal samples under acoustic emission (AE) monitoring over 1–7 DWC times. We analyzed the effects of DWC and fatigue cycles on the dynamic parameters and AE response, investigated crack spatial extension behaviors and the tensile-shear cracking evolution law, and analyzed the fatigue damage evolution law and failure precursor with energy and b-value. The results demonstrated that fatigue loading produced a strengthening effect on the DWC coal samples, and DWC promoted plastic softening damage to the specimens and increased the percentage of the elastic phase. The average dynamic fatigue strength and life of the specimens decreased exponentially under 7 DWC times. The average dynamic axial stiffness decreased by 15.67 %, the axial deformation increased by 6.1 × 10−4 in a single cycle, and the dynamic elasticity modulus of the fatigue damage instant decreased by 8.86 %. The greater the number of DWC, the smaller the b-value and the larger the fluctuation amplitude at fatigue failure of the specimen. A large short-term increase or decrease in the b-value can be regarded as a precursor to fatigue failure. This study provides a reference for the stability monitoring and forewarning of underground pumped-storage facilities.

Iron complex with multiple negative charges ligand for ultrahigh stability and high energy density alkaline all-iron flow battery

Alkaline all-iron flow batteries (AIFBs) are highly attractive for large-scale and long-term energy storage due to the abundant availability of raw materials, low cost, inherent safety, and decoupling of capacity and power. However, a stable iron anolyte is still being explored to address complex decomposition, ligand crossover, and energy density to improve battery performance. Herein, a promising metal-organic complex, Fe(NTHPS), consisting of FeCl3 and 3,3',3''-nitrilotris(2-hydroxypropane-1-sulfonate) (NTHPS), is specifically designed for alkaline all-iron flow battery. The NTHPS exhibits strong binding strength with iron ions, resulting in ultrahigh stability during the charge-discharge process. AIFB based on the [Fe(CN)6]4- catholyte and Fe(NTHPS) showcases an exceptionally high capacity retention of 97.8% after 2000 cycles (0.0011% per cycle), maintaining high coulombic efficiency near 100%. Furthermore, with a solubility as high as 1.82 mol L-1, the Fe(NTHPS) anolyte demonstrates an ultra-high theoretical capacity of 47.23 Ah L-1. This multiple negative charges ligand not only resolves existing barrier associated with AIFBs, but also provides valuable insight for their commercial application.

A Comprehensive Review on Iron-Based Sulfate Cathodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries.

Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are advantageous for large-scale energy storage due to the plentiful and ubiquitous nature of sodium resources, coupled with their lower cost relative to alternative technologies. To expedite the market adoption of SIBs, enhancing the energy density of SIBs is essential. Raising the operational voltage of the SIBs cathode is regarded as an effective strategy for achieving this goal, but it requires stable high-voltage cathode materials. Sodium iron sulfate (NFSO) is considered to be a promising cathode material due to its stable framework, adjustable structure, operational safety, and the high electronegativity of SO4-. This paper reviews the research progress of NFSO, discusses its structure and sodium storage mechanism on this basis, and summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of NFSO cathode materials. This study also evaluates the advancements in enhancing the electrochemical characteristics and structural reliability of SIBs, drawing on both domestic and international research. The findings of this paper offer valuable insights into the engineering and innovation of robust and viable SIB cathodes based on NFSO at ambient temperatures, contributing to their commercial viability.

Ambient-pressure relithiation of spent LiFePO4 using alkaline solutions enables direct regeneration of lithium-ion battery cathodes

Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) is widely recognized for its cost-effectiveness in manufacturing and high safety during usage, making it a favored choice for electric vehicles and energy storage stations. Nevertheless, the development of efficient and low-cost recycling methods has emerged as an urgent priority due to the economic and environmental benefits associated with it. Here, the present study successfully demonstrates the ambient-pressure relithiation of lithium-deficient LiFePO4 particles in alkaline solutions. Specifically, the incorporation of reductive sodium nitrite with lower redox potential in the alkaline environment spontaneously repairs the compositional and structural defects, facilitating effective lithium-ion insertion back into the original site. Consequently, the short-term annealing step promotes the formation of more thermodynamically stable particles, resulting in enhanced cycling stability and rate capability comparable to that of the pristine materials. The regenerated LiFePO4 cathode exhibits improved electrochemical performance in terms of long-term cyclability, high-rate properties and reduced polarization (a high retention of 93 % after 1000 cycles at 5C). The findings of this study suggest the significant potential for utilizing various reductants in an alkaline environment to achieve ambient-pressure relithiation, thereby facilitating the recycling and remanufacturing of spent lithium-ion cathode materials.