Energy Expenditure In Athletes Research Articles

Analysis of Daily Activity Pattern to Estimate the Physical Activity Level and Energy Expenditure of Elite and Non-Elite Athletes

Physical exercise and adequate energy intake are the most important needs for optimum health, and they are also strongly connected to the amount of energy used when participating in any kind of physical activity. Total energy expenditure (TEE) may be calculated by combining resting energy expenditure (REE) with the physical activity level (PAL). Validated PAL guidelines are generally accessible and used by the general public, however less is known about PAL in competitive athletes. This research aimed at analyzing the physical activity level and the energy expenditure of athletes who participate in various sports on a daily basis. The research included 53 female athletes (43.39% elite and 56.61% non-elite), and 47 male athletes (40.42% elite and 59.57% non-elite) who competed in athletics, basketball, badminton, cricket, hockey, kabaddi, volleyball, and wrestling. The PAL, the BMR—basal metabolic rate, and the TEE were used to measure energy expenditure throughout a regular training phase. The PAL was determined using the athletes’ 24 h activity profiles, which consisted of their practice, study, leisure, and sleep hours. The Harris–Benedict equation was used to calculate the BMR. The TEE was computed by multiplying the BMR by the PAL. The time spent on work/practice, rest, and leisure activities was used to calculate the athletes’ daily activity load. The PAL was 2.33 ± 0.47, the TEE was 3532.18 ± 827.75 kcal/day, and the BMR was 1515.06 ± 203.52 kcal/day. Field hockey players had the greatest physical activity load (3.0 ± 0.00), followed by wrestlers (2.6 ± 0.20), boxers (2.6 ± 0.30), basketball players (2.3 ± 0.40), athletics athletes (2.2 ± 0.43), volleyball players (2.0 ± 0.20), kabaddi players (1.8 ± 0.20), cricketers (1.8 ± 0.10), and badminton players (1.7 ± 0.10). The PAL values were higher in the elite than in the non-elite female athletes (2.81 ± 0.23, and 2.12 ± 0.34, respectively), as well as in the male athletes (2.60 ± 0.28, and 1.94 ± 0.30, respectively). These data showed that the PAL values of both the elite and the non-elite athletes were at the WHO-recommended threshold yet were characterized as intensely active.

Contemporary approaches to the assessment of energy intake and energy expenditure in athletes

Assessment and interpreting of the energy expenditure (EE) in highly skilled athletes are important components of an effective training and performance prediction. Each component of EE (resting energy expenditure, thermic effect of food, and physical activity energy expenditure) is closely related to dietary patterns, the intensity and duration of physical activity, as well as a number of other factors that affect the functional state of athletes. Despite the importance of EE in the training process, coaches and athletes often do not take EE into account, which reduces the objectivity of assessing athletes' functional state. The purpose of this research was to summarize the recent information on the structure of EE and energy consumption in athletes. Material and methods. The search and analysis of publications was carried out using the PubMed, MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, eLIBRARY databases, mainly for the last 10 years, using the search keywords: rest energy expenditure, thermic effect of food, physical activity energy expenditure, energy intake, total energy expenditure, athletes. Results. This overview includes information on the components of total energy expenditure, such as rest energy expenditure, thermic effect of food and physical activity energy expenditure, as well as generalized information on the factors affecting the variability of their values and methods for assessing one or another type of energy expenditure. International nutritional recommendations regarding the level of physical activity of athletes are systematized, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of methods for studying energy consumption and total energy expenditure are presented. Conclusion. Combined study of energy intake and energy expenditure will help athletes avoid the negative impact of energy deficiency on performance, and the correct construction of the training process with the maintenance of adequate energy consumption will have a positive impact on the performance and recovery processes after intensive physical exertion.

Effects of 8-Week Electromyostimulation Training on Upper-Limb Muscle Activity and Respiratory Gas Analysis in Athletes with Disabilities.

This study was aimed at verifying the efficacy of EMS training by investigating the changes in upper-limb muscle functions and energy expenditure in athletes with disabilities after an 8-week intervention of EMS training. We compared variations in muscle activity, respiratory gas, and symmetry index (SI) after an 8-week intervention in eight professional male athletes with disabilities wearing an electromyostimulation (EMS) suit (age: 42.00 ± 8.67 years, height: 1.65 ± 0.16 m, weight: 64.00 ± 8.72 kg, career length: 11.75 ± 3.83 years). For EMS training, each participant wore an EMS suit. EMS was applied to the upper-limb muscles pectoralis major and triceps at 40 °C water temperature, with a 25 Hz frequency (duty cycle 10%) for 15 min, followed by a 5 Hz frequency (duty cycle 5%) for 5 min. The pre- and post-intervention measurements were taken in the same way at a pre-set time (for 1 h, twice a week) for 8 weeks. Training involved a seated chest press, and the muscle activity (pectoralis major, triceps, and antebrachial muscles), upper-limb SI, and respiratory gas variables (maximal oxygen consumption (VO2), carbon dioxide output (VCO2), respiratory quotient (RQ), metabolic equivalents (METs), and energy expenditure per min (Energy expended per minute; EEm)) were analyzed. Variations pre- and post-intervention across the measured variables were analyzed. Regarding the change in muscle activity, significant variations were found in the pectoralis major right (p < 0.004), pectoralis major left (p < 0.001), triceps right (p < 0.002), and antebrachial right (p < 0.001). Regarding left-to-right SI, a positive change was detected in the pectoralis major and triceps muscles. Additionally, respiratory gas analysis indicated significant variations in VO2 (p < 0.001), VCO2 (p < 0.001), METs (p < 0.001), and EEm (p < 0.001). EMS training improved muscle strength and respiratory gas variables and is predicted to contribute to enhanced muscle function and rehabilitation training for athletes with disabilities.

An analysis of the diet of members of the Russian national men's water polo team during the sports training camps

Increasing the adaptive capacity of professional athletes depends on proper nutrition, especially in training and competitions' period. In this regard, it is relevant to study the actual nutrition and assess its compliance with the energy expenditure of athletes. The aim - to study the actual nutrition and energy expenditure of athletes from male water polo national team of the Russian Federation in the competitive period. Material and methods. In March 2018, 15 highly skilled sportsmen-men engaged in water polo were examined; qualification - 11 masters of sports, 4 candidates for the master of sports; Slavic ethnos. The average age was 23.1±0.6 years. The actual nutrition was studied by a 24-hour food record method and by the frequency method. The anthropometric examination was carried out according to a unified method using standard medical scales, a medical height meter and a rubberized measuring tape. Measurement of energy expenditure and heart rate at rest and under load was performed on a bicycle ergometer using an wireless ergospirometer and a chest pulse meter. Results and discussion. The determination of daily energy expenditure in athletes of the men's Russian national water polo team showed that the average value was 4350±129 kcal. А peculiar feature of the diet of water polo players is its high caloric value (5165±539 kcal/day), caused by energy expenditure during physical exertion and additional thermogenesis in conditions of long training in water. Excessive (1.5 times in comparison with the recommended values) consumption of fats, including saturated fatty acids by 1.3 times, added sugar and added salt is a risk factor of cardiovascular diseases, diseases of digestive organs, endocrine system, including type 2 diabetes. Low values of consumption of vegetables and fruits, dairy products, fish products and high levels of sugar and confectionery have been established. Conclusion. The imbalance of diets on two basic nutrients (fats, carbohydrates) has been revealed. The data obtained were the basis for the formation of individual recommendations on nutrition for each athlete, taking into account athletes' metabolic parameters and the level of physical activity. It is necessary to continue studies of anthropometric indices in dynamics for the most adequate assessment of the compliance of actual nutrition with energy consumption, and further correction of the diet in order to improve athletes' performance.

Energy expenditure of athletes' endurance and strength in the light of the Polish energy intake standards.

The purpose of the study was to estimate training energy expenditure (TEE) and daily energy expenditure (DEE) in the Polish elite athletes engaged in endurance sports and power sports, and to compare their levels with the Polish energy intake standards. The study sample consisted of 30 athletes (15 women and 15 men) whose energy expenditure was estimated based on heart rate monitoring. The mean values of DEE obtained for women engaged in endurance sports (WE - women endurance) and power sports (WP - women power) were 3201±533 kcal and 3217±554 kcal, respectively. In the group of male athletes, the respective values were 4518±717 kcal for endurance athletes (ME - men endurance) and 4459±837 kcal for power athletes (MP - men power). The mean values of TEE for female athletes were 819±240 kcal (WE) and 1047±248 kcal (WP). Those obtained for male athletes were significantly higher: 1440±675 kcal (ME) and 1337±331 kcal (MP). Unlike the demands of particular sport disciplines, an athlete's sex proved to be a factor causing significant differences between the TEE and DEE of athletes representing different sport disciplines. Individual athletes were found to differ significantly in their demand for energy, which in some cases was considerably different from what energy intake standards propose. Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 2019;32(1):1-13.

Management of the female athlete triad.

The female athlete triad (FAT) is defined by the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) as low energy availability (low EA), functional hypothalamic amenorrhoea and osteoporosis. In low EA, lutein dysfunction first develops, followed by anovulation and, subsequently, oligomenorrhea, leading to amenorrhea. Moreover, low estradiol concentrations due to amenorrhea decrease bone mineral density (BMD). In athletes with one of the factors of FAT, the risk of a stress fracture is 2.4-4.9 times higher and may increase the risk of fracture throughout the lifespan. Low EA is the starting point of FAT, and the FAT concept emphasizes the importance of energy intake that is commensurate with exercise energy expenditure in athletes. In amenorrheic athletes who undergo gynecological examination, it is important to appropriately evaluate whether the cause is low EA and to review exercise energy expenditure and energy intake. It remains difficult even for experts to calculate available energy using the ACSM definition formula when evaluating energy deficiency. Moreover, performing early FAT screening during teenage years and cooperation between the department of obstetrics and gynecology and sports dietitians are also issues. The aim of this paper is to review the management of FAT from the viewpoint of gynecologists.

Accuracy of dietary reference intake predictive equation for estimated energy requirements in female tennis athletes and non-athlete college students: comparison with the doubly labeled water method

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVESThe purpose of this study was to assess the accuracy of a dietary reference intake (DRI) predictive equation for estimated energy requirements (EER) in female college tennis athletes and non-athlete students using doubly labeled water (DLW) as a reference method.MATERIALS/METHODSFifteen female college students, including eight tennis athletes and seven non-athlete subjects (aged between 19 to 24 years), were involved in the study. Subjects' total energy expenditure (TEE) was measured by the DLW method, and EER were calculated using the DRI predictive equation. The accuracy of this equation was assessed by comparing the EER calculated using the DRI predictive equation (EERDRI) and TEE measured by the DLW method (TEEDLW) based on calculation of percentage difference mean and percentage of accurate prediction. The agreement between the two methods was assessed by the Bland-Altman method.RESULTSThe percentage difference mean between the methods was -1.1% in athletes and 1.8% in non-athlete subjects, whereas the percentage of accurate prediction was 37.5% and 85.7%, respectively. In the case of athletic subjects, the DRI predictive equation showed a clear bias negatively proportional to the subjects' TEE.CONCLUSIONSThe results from this study suggest that the DRI predictive equation could be used to obtain EER in non-athlete female college students at a group level. However, this equation would be difficult to use in the case of athletes at the group and individual levels. The development of a new and more appropriate equation for the prediction of energy expenditure in athletes is proposed.

Evaluation of nutritional status and energy expenditure in athletes.

Continuous physical exercise leads the athlete to maintain an unstable balance between dietary intake, energy expenditure and the additional demands of a high amount of physical activity. Thus, an accurate assessment of nutritional status is essential to optimize the performance, since it affects health, body composition, and the recovery of the athlete. Specific aspects like the type of sport, specialty or playing position, training schedule and competition calendar, category, specific objectives, which differ from the general population, must be considered. A biochemical assessment can give us a general idea of the nutritional status, lipid profile, liver or kidney function, if diet is too high in proteins or fats, as well as possible nutritional deficiencies and the need for supplementation. Sport kinanthropometry has great utility that enables the assessment of body mass, height, length, diameter, perimeter and skinfolds, where information is processed by applying different equations, obtaining information on somatotype, body composition, and the proportionality of different parts of the body. To give proper nutritional counselling, energy needs of the athlete must be known. If objective measurement is not possible, there are tables including theoretically established energy requirements of different sports. Dietary assessment should include information about food consumption and nutrient intake to establish the relationship between diet, health status and athlete's performance. On the other hand, an adequate hydration status in athletes is essential to maintain adequate performance. Hence, the knowledge of fluid intake by the athlete is a matter of the utmost importance. Dehydration can cause harmful effects on athletes' health. As there is no gold standard, urine gravidity and urine colour are the most extended methods for analyzing hydration status. There is consensus that due to complexity, the combination of different methods assures an effective data collection which will be useful to proceed in dietary and nutritional intervention..

Nutrition in the Wilderness

In Brief Objective This research was designed to illuminate the fundamentals of and synthesize current research on nutrition for individuals on trips in the backcountry. Methods This literature review used the search engines ScienceDirect, Web of Science, PubMed, CINAHL, MEDLINE, and DynaMed and the University of Vermont’s library sources on proper nutrition in the backcountry, athletic energy expenditure, and military rationing for wilderness travel from the year 1980 to present. Results Energy expenditure often increases in the backcountry. Energy expenditure in athletes frequently far exceeds (31%) their energy intake. In the backcountry, polar climates induce increased energy expenditure due to maintenance of core body temperature. High-altitude climates require a high carbohydrate intake to aid in acclimatization. Hot climates induce sweating and require fluid and electrolyte replacement. Conclusions Many factors, including energy intake and expenditure, hydration, and climate, influence the macronutrient and micronutrient composition necessary to maintain health in the backcountry and should be taken into consideration in the planning and preparation of a backcountry expedition. Understanding the fundamentals of, and synthesize current research on, nutrition for individuals on trips in the backcountry.

Global Positioning System Watches for Estimating Energy Expenditure

Global positioning system (GPS) watches have been introduced commercially, converting frequent measurements of time, location, speed (pace), and elevation into energy expenditure (EE) estimates. The purpose of this study was to compare EE estimates of 4 different GPS watches (Forerunner, Suunto, Polar, Adeo), at various walking speeds, with EE estimate from a triaxial accelerometer (RT3), which was used as a reference measure in this study. Sixteen healthy young adults completed the study. Participants wore 4 different GPS watches and an RT3 accelerometer and walked at 6-minute intervals on an outdoor track at 3 speeds (3, 5, and 7 km/hr). The statistical significance of differences in EE between the 3 watches was assessed using linear contrasts of the coefficients from the overall model. Reliability across trials for a given device was assessed using intraclass correlation coefficients as estimated in the mixed model. The GPS watches demonstrated lower reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient) across trials when compared with the RT3, particularly at the higher speed, 7 km/hr. Three GPS watches (Forerunner, Polar, and Suunto) significantly and consistently underestimated EE compared with the reference EE given by the RT3 accelerometer (average mean difference: Garmin, -50.5%; Polar, -41.7%; and Suunto, -41.7%; all p < 0.001). Results suggested that caution should be exercised when using commercial GPS watches to estimate EE in athletes during field-based testing and training.

Evaluation of two portable sensors for energy expenditure assessment during high-intensity running

The correct assessment of individual energy requirements of athletes remains a challenge. Available literature indicates that accelerometry-based sensors underestimated energy expenditure in athletes, especially during high-intensity exercise. The goal of our study was to evaluate two commercially available devices (Actiheart; SenseWear Pro3) during high-intensity running and to identify potential sources of error. Twenty-nine male endurance- and strength-trained athletes participated in an incremental running exercise, which started at 2.8 m · s−1. Running speed was increased by 0.4 m · s−1 every 5 minutes until 4.8 m · s−1 or individual exhaustion were reached. Energy expenditure was measured with indirect calorimetry (IC) and both sensors were worn according to the manufacturers' instructions. Twelve participants also conducted a step test in order to individually recalibrate the Actiheart data. The Actiheart monitor underestimated energy expenditure (EE) for all speeds by 1.1 to 8.3 kcal · min−1 and showed a weak correlation with IC (r=0.61). Following individual recalibration there were no significant differences to IC but validity correlation did not improve (r=0.56). Heart rate was assessed correctly with the Actiheart when compared to a Polar 610 recorder. Activity counts increased only between 2.8 and 3.6 m · s−1 but plateaued thereafter. SenseWear significantly underestimated EE for all speeds by 1.0 to 9.5 kcal min−1 and was moderately correlated with IC (r=0.66). Longitudinal and transversal acceleration increased significantly between 2.8 and 4.4 m · s−1 and were correlated with running speed (0.63 < r<0.69). Our results show that both devices underestimate EE during high-intensity running. For Actiheart, individual calibration is recommended in order to obtain sufficiently accurate results. For SenseWear, acceleration data could be used to improve EE prediction during high-intensity running. Further research is necessary to validate these portable devices in other groups, in field settings and during other exercise types.

Determining over ground running speed using inertial sensors

Accurate activity monitoring techniques provide coaches and athletes with the tools to better analyze the effect of training sessions in the lead up to competition. The most common approach for monitoring elite level athletes comes in the form of using Global Position Systems (GPS) in an effort to obtain the time spent running in different speed levels as well as recording the total distance travelled. Accelerometers, on the other hand, are steadily growing in popularity as activity monitoring tools and offer researchers, coaches and players an alternative way to track athlete performance. Accelerometers have previously been used to approximate running speeds and energy expenditure in athletes running on a treadmill. It is often argued both by athletes and researchers that the biomechanical processes involved in treadmill running differ significantly when compared to over ground running. This paper extends previous research by exploring the use of accelerometers to accurately approximate over ground running speeds. Performance monitoring units were placed in a specially designed vest, that when worn by the player, positioned the tracking unit around the middle to upper thoracic vertebrae. An experiment was conducted in which the accelerometry data for experienced runners over a range of speeds was recorded alongside an external speed measurement. Participants were asked to run a series of 50 m stretches of track at what they perceived to be constant speeds. Players were asked to steadily increase their speed for each trial, beginning roughly at 8km/h and finishing at around 30km/h. The accelerometer data was exported to MATLAB where a series of post processing steps were used to extract the stride frequency. The stride frequency derived from the accelerometer data was compared to an externally measured speed and found to produce a linear relationship as expected from the literature. This research has provided the ground work for the use of accelerometers in measuring the speed of over-ground running.

Position of the New Zealand Dietetic Association (Inc): Nutrition for exercise and sport in New Zealand

Position of the New Zealand Dietetic Association (Inc): Nutrition for exercise and sport in New Zealand

Methods of assessing energy expenditure in athletes

Methods of assessing energy expenditure in athletes

Scaling laws and forecasting in athletic world records

In this study, we analysed running world records and found that the mean speed of the race, μ, as a function of the record time, τ, can be described asymptotically by two well-defined scaling laws of the form u ˜s τ - β. There is a break in the scaling laws (˜1000m) between the shorter and the longer races at a characteristic time of around 150-170 s, after which a new scaling regime emerges. This is the first occasion that this characteristic time has been clearly found in physical terms; we interpreted it as the transition time between the anaerobic and the aerobic energy expenditure of athletes. This phenomenon is independent of the athletes' sex and is also found in swimming races with similar values of the characteristic time. We also investigated the forecasting of world records using historical data. Using an approach based on the identification of non-Poissonian events for a sequence of temporal point processes, we found that the sequence of improvements in all athletic records from 1900 to the present day cannot be considered as a sequence of completely random events.

Substrate oxidation and energy expenditure in athletes and nonathletes consuming isoenergetic high- and low-fat diets

Changes in substrate oxidation with isoenergetic high-carbohydrate (HC) and high-fat (HF) diets in male nonathletic subjects, aerobically trained athletes, and weight-trained athletes were examined in a crossover study. A whole-room respiration chamber was used to measure 24-h energy expenditure (EE) and substrate oxidation with control, HC, or HF diets for 7 d. The nonathletic group had higher 24-h EE (P < 0.05), exercise EE (P < 0.03), and resting metabolic rate (P < 0.04) than did the aerobically trained athletes when these measurements were corrected for lean body mass. Fat oxidation was significantly correlated with lean body mass and diet. However, athletic status had no effect on substrate oxidation. Carbohydrate oxidation across groups increased acutely by 23% after 24 h of the HC diet (P < 0.0001). Carbohydrate balance increased significantly over time with the HC diet (P < 0.002) and decreased acutely after return to the control diet (P < 0.0001). With the HF diet, carbohydrate balance increased and was significantly different from balance with the control diet by day 7 (P < 0.03). Fat balance decreased significantly with both the HF (P < 0.04) and HC (P = 0.0075) diets by day 7. Carbohydrate oxidation correlated with carbohydrate intake with both the control (r = 0.61, P < 0.01) and HC diets (r = 0.59, P < 0.02), but not the HF diet. Fat oxidation was not correlated with fat intake. In conclusion, substrate oxidation in a respiration chamber is significantly affected by diet, but not by prior athletic training.

Energy Expenditure in Athletes - Comparison with Predicted Values

Energy Expenditure in Athletes - Comparison with Predicted Values