Enemy Soldiers Research Articles

‘To be human is to bury the enemy dead’: migrant deaths, posthumous citizenship, and the ‘soldier-migrant analogy’ in the refugee crisis

ABSTRACT While states increasingly govern migration through the administration and distribution of death, they occasionally invest considerable resources in recovering, identifying, and burying dead migrants. How to explain this paradox? A forceful argument in the critical scholarship on migration and citizenship maintains that death sometimes compels states to acknowledge the humanity of the migrants and grant them some degree of posthumous citizenship. In this article, we advance a view that is both different and complementary. We suggest that burying dead migrants is a way for the state and its host population to affirm and celebrate their own humanity. This perspective rests on three arguments: to be human is to bury; the ultimate act of humanity is not burying the loved ones but the enemies; burying dead migrants can be compared to burying dead enemy soldiers. The article sheds further light on the still underexplored phenomenon of ‘caring for dead migrants’ and assesses how these practices of care challenge but also reinforce dominant exclusionary understandings of citizenship.

PROMOTING ECOLOGICAL AWARENESS IN METAL GEAR SOLID V: SOCIAL SEMIOTIC APPROACH

Video game is a new media of telling stories to young people and adults and it is no longer seen as gameplay only but gameplay with story. Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain took Cold War as the main story background tells the story differently. The game system of this video game offers freedom to players to interact with anything during the gameplay, but this freedom has consequences. Applying social semiotic approach, this paper aims to identify how appraisal theory and narrative representation can be used to promote ecological awareness. After observing, collecting and viewing, transcribing and analyzing multimodal data, the researchers find that killing non-playable characters in form of human and animals and even enemy will reduce the score which is important in developing the playable characters’ weapons and equipment. Adopting the theory from Martin White in appraisal theory and Kress and van Leewuen, Caple in narrative representation, this paper also finds that appraisal theory is used to guide the players to play in ethical way such as using non-lethal weaponry, capturing wild animals to protect them from war, and collecting medical plants as needed only, besides, the enemy soldiers can be hired and give beneficial results to the players when they are used to play. In narrative representation, the freedom of choices is designed to make ethical play more plausible.

Убийство военнослужащими солдат противника в ходе боевых действий: проблемы квалификации и освобождения от уголовной ответственности

The problems of criminal legal assessment of military personnel's actions related to causing harm during hostilities, regulated by international law, are not fully implemented in the Russian legal system. In particular, there are no norms in Chapter 8 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation that exclude the criminality of an act related to the murder of enemy army soldiers during an armed conflict. The article substantiates the need to classify these actions as socially useful, and their inclusion in the list of circumstances excluding criminal liability.

Reflections of Horror on Islamic Invasions in Medieval India

Pre-Islamic India had a great tradition in creating magnificent and sensual sculptures, and building wondrous architectures. After the coming of Muslim invaders, Indian builders and craftsmen mixed Islamic ideas to their own, creating a new Indo-Islamic mosaic in the new building and architecture, which became integrated into the “heritage” of the self-declared Islamic civilization. Apart from India’s intellectual and scientific achievements, Said alAndalusi noted: ‘The Indians, as known to all nations for many centuries, are the metal (essence) of wisdom, the source of fairness and objectivity. They are peoples of sublime pensiveness, universal apologue…1’ Indeed, India was not only a distinguished civilization in its achievements in science, literature, philosophy, arts, and architecture but also had distinguished itself from the invading Muslims in terms of its humanity, chivalry and ethical behavior. Prior to Islamic invasions, Hindu kings and princes of India used to engage in wars, like in any major civilization of the time, but such wars were relatively infrequent. Affirming this, Muslim traveler Merchant Sulaiman writes in his Salsilatut Tawarikh : ‘The Indians sometimes go to war for conquest, but the occasions are rare.2’ Ibn Battutah, while traveling with Sultan Muhammad Tughlaq’s diplomatic convoy to the Chinese emperor, was surprised to observe that the Hindu rulers of Malabar showed great respect for each other’s territory and exercised restraint against warfare. In Malabar, he wrote, ‘there are twelve infidel sultans, some of them strong with armies numbering fifty thousand men, and others weak with armies of three thousand. Yet there is no discord whatever between them and the strong does not desire to seize the possessions of the weak.’ Muslim invaders had unfurled continuous warfare in India (and everywhere else) not only against the Hindus but amongst themselves; there were ceaseless revolts by Muslim generals, chiefs and princes all over India during their entire period of Islamic rule. Battutah’s astonishment is then quite understandable. Sulaiman adds that the Indian kings even did not maintain troops in regular pays. They used to be paid only when they were called in for fighting. Once the war is over, ‘They then come out (to civilian life), and maintain themselves without receiving anything from the king.3’ It is evident from the discussion so far that the Islamic invaders of India brought a totally different code of war, based on the Quran and the Sunnah. Contemporary Muslim historians inform us that, as a general rule, they used to slay all enemy soldiers on the battlefield. After the victory, they often fell upon the civilian villages and towns often slaughtering the men of fighting age. They sacked and plundered the households for booty, and sometimes burned down the villages and towns. Of the civilian population, the Buddhist monks and priestly Brahmins, in whom the common people reposed their trust, became special targets for extermination. The centers of infidel religion and learning—namely Hindu and Jain temples, Buddhist monasteries, Sikh Gurdwaras and indigenous educational institutions—were their prime targets for desecration, destruction and plunder. The women and children were captured as slaves in large numbers.

К вопросу о судьбе военнопленных из сталинградского «котла»

Introduction. The successful counter-offensive of the Soviet troops near Stalingrad marked the beginning of the mass capture of enemy soldiers. Only after the liquidation of the Stalingrad cauldron, more than 90 thousand people were taken prisoner. Methods and materials. Historical facts are researched on the basis of the principles of historicism and objectivity. The article uses problem-chronological and comparative-historical methods. The article is based on the archival and published documents of the NKVD Secretariat, the Main Directorate for Prisoners of War Central Office and NKVD Internees and the Joint Archival Fund: Institutions for Prisoners of War and Internees of the Volgograd Region. Analysis. The captured enemy soldiers were exhausted and weakened to the limit, poorly dressed, all with lice, many sick and non-transportable. At the same time, it was impossible to create normal conditions in the destroyed city in a short period to accommodate captured enemy soldiers. A month-long stay in the frontline led to the fact that only 30% of the prisoners of war could be taken to the rear camps. In the special hospitals for prisoners of war created in Stalingrad and the region, the mortality rate until the beginning of June 1943 amounted to 63% of those admitted for treatment. But most of the prisoners sent to the rear could not move the road or died in the first days upon arrival at the camps. Results. About 80 thousand prisoners of war from the Stalingrad cauldron died already in 1943. The main reason for the high mortality among them was a long stay in harsh winter conditions and stress because of being in the cauldron without regular food. The low readiness of the NKVD camps and special hospitals to receive prisoners of war also had an effect.

„Pamiątka z bratania się...” Fotograficzna dokumentacja fenomenu fraternizacji na froncie wschodnim I wojny światowej w 1917/18 roku

In year 1917 the Russian war effort was heavily affected by the outbreak of the revolution(s) and the events that followed. Having lost faith in their own commanders, the common Russian soldier has become especially vulnerable to anti-war propaganda. Thus the spontaneous cases of ceasefire and peaceful meetings with enemy soldiers on no man's land have become common, Such events were frequently documented by photographers present on site, and their works allows us to take a better, almost first-hand look at these unusual wartime activities. The double perspective of such images (propaganda- and commemorative one) allows us to take an unique view on the last stage of the Great War on East.

“So we cooked my son and ate him . . .”: 2 Kings 6:24–7:20 as symbol of desperation and despair within city walls

The narrative of 2 Kgs 6:24–7:20 illustrates the desperation and despair experienced by people doubly surrounded by city walls which are surrounded by enemy soldiers. In this Elisha narrative, the army of Ben-hadad, the Aramean king, besieges the capital of Samaria. While ancient cities had walls to protect people, the same walls could also be death-dealing places as residents were trapped inside. The story illustrates how truly desperate circumstances came to the point that those trapped inside had to resort to cannibalism to survive. The king, also confined within the city wall, passes a death sentence on Elisha but the prophet predicts a happy ending. The crisis is resolved through divine intervention that essentially dismantles the death-delivering wall of the Aramean army. The dismantling of this military border leads to the liberation of the people, the provision of sustenance, and the maintenance of life. The article examines the historical context of the text, the meaning of borders and boundaries in antiquity, the drama of the text, the resolution of the crisis, and implications for today’s marginalized communities within various borders.

Loneliness and lack of belonging as paramount theme in identity descriptions of Children Born of War

ObjectiveChildren Born of War (CBOW) are an international and timeless phenomenon that exists in every country involved in war or armed conflict. Nevertheless, little is known on a systematic level about those children, who are typically fathered by a foreign or enemy soldier and born to a local mother. In particular, the identity issues that CBOW often report have remained largely uninvestigated. In the current qualitative study we began filling this gap in the scientific literature by asking how CBOW construct their identity in self-descriptions.MethodWe utilized thematic content analysis of N = 122 German CBOWs' answers to an open-ended questionnaire item asking how they see themselves and their identity in the context of being a CBOW.ResultsWe identified five key themes in CBOW' identity accounts. Loneliness and lack of belonging appeared as a paramount aspect of their self-descriptions next to narratives about belonging and positive relationship. On a less interpersonal basis, we found fighting and surviving and searching for truth and completion overarching aspects of their identities. There were also few accounts growing up unaffected by the fact of being born a CBOW. Although all themes portray different perspectives, they all (but the last one) clearly indicate the impeded circumstances under which CBOW had to grow up.ConclusionsIntegrating our findings with existing interdisciplinary literature regarding identity, we discuss implications for future research and clinical and political practice.

Captives of Liberty: Prisoners of War and the Politics of Vengeance in the American Revolution by T. Cole Jones

Reviewed by: Captives of Liberty: Prisoners of War and the Politics of Vengeance in the American Revolution by T. Cole Jones Noah Shusterman T. Cole Jones, Captives of Liberty: Prisoners of War and the Politics of Vengeance in the American Revolution (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2019). Pp. 336; 11 illus. $39.95 cloth. In the fall of 1776, George Washington received a letter from William Howe criticizing the conditions in which British prisoners of war were being held, including the American practice of holding them in common jails. Such treatment of soldiers, Howe noted, was not in line with the "Custom of War." Nor was it consistent with Washington's own views of how war should be conducted. According to T. Cole Jones, Howe's reproach "hit a nerve" with Washington, for whom "any feeling of indignation was overcome by shame" (100). Washington had hoped to lead a well-trained army in a European-style war against the British army, following the rules of war that prevailed in Europe at the time—norms that included humane treatment of all prisoners, and through which captured officers were freed on their own parole. But the American Revolutionary War was something different. This was in part because the British, at the start, were hesitant to categorize the Americans as enemy soldiers. The British saw the Americans as "rebels" and therefore outside of the rules of war, as they had declared the Jacobites during the 1740s. Over the course of the war, Washington eventually realized that his view of what the war should be was one that few of his fellow Americans shared. Instead, British prisoners who had surrendered under relatively lenient agreements (including at Saratoga and at Yorktown) found themselves facing a population that wanted vengeance. Local governments responsible for keeping the prisoners according to the terms of the surrender agreements had neither the desire nor the funding to do so. Congress accomplished little other than the occasional retroactive rejection of the surrender agreements which, in practice, had long become dead letters. American prisoners, meanwhile, were held in near-starvation conditions in prisons or even on boats anchored offshore, where diseases ran rampant. Though part of the Americans' mistreatment was a result of British disdain for the rebels, they also suffered from Congress's inability to foot the bill for their food and lodging. As the war dragged on, military leaders on both sides hoped for large-scale prisoner exchanges. For a variety of reasons, including confusion on the American side about the respective prerogatives of state, local, and national governments, those exchanges rarely occurred, and the men were left to either wait out the war in prison or escape. Captives of Liberty, which grew out of Jones's doctoral dissertation, is a detailed and thorough history of the way that the British treated their American prisoners of war and, even more, the way that the Americans treated British prisoners. It is divided into five chapters, organized chronologically and following the course of the war. Jones incorporates an impressive amount of evidence. Its most striking passages are also its bleakest, a result of Jones's decision to center "the war and its consequent horrors." Including both large-scale surveys of the sweep of the war and specific vignettes—many of them horrific—Jones traces the history of prisoners from 1775 until 1783, and also shows how violence toward prisoners increased over the course of the war. By the end, during the Southern Campaign, the story is one of "bloodlust" and kangaroo courts, especially in the violence between local loyalists and patriots (202). [End Page 576] There is a curious tension throughout the book, though—almost as if Jones shares some of Washington's disappointment. By the end of the book, after reading about the repeated failures of Congress to arrange any large-scale prisoner transfers, the numerous attacks on British prisoners by their guards or by local patriots, the population's continued calls for retaliation against prisoners of war, and the willingness on so many levels to ignore agreed-upon conditions for the prisoners' surrender, it is hard to avoid the conclusion that the war was waged by a bloodthirsty population and...

Implementation of High Reliability Organizing (HRO): The Inherent Vice of Stress, Fear, and Threat

Implementation of High Reliability Organizing (HRO): The Inherent Vice of Stress, Fear, and Threat

‘The Concertina's Deadly Work in the Trenches’: Soundscapes of Suffering in the South African War

Under the recurring headline ‘the Concertina's Deadly Work in the Trenches’, several British newspapers reported in early 1900 that, during the ongoing siege of Mafeking, British army concertina players were capturing enemy soldiers by simply playing strains of the concertina to distract them out of their hiding places. ‘One is sorry to learn that the art of music should be pressed into service to lure persons to destruction’, a commentator in the Musical News noted, but then, it was rationalized, ‘all's fair in war’. This hybrid use of the concertina during the South African War was further employed as a metaphor for the decay of the physical body itself: as has been noted by Elizabeth van Heyningen, food in Boer concentration camps was so meagre that the meat served to prisoners was once described as coming from a ‘carcase [who] looks like a concertina drawn out fully with all the wind knocked out’. Likewise, Krebs (1999) has discussed the presence of the concertina in the trenches as an example of contemporaneous stereotypes about the susceptibility of Boer soldiers to music in relation to perceived notions that they were backwards and easily manipulated. Drawing upon references to music – particularly the ubiquitous, anthropomorphised, instrument of the concertina – in concentration camps during the South African War, this paper will situate the use of British military music at the dawn of the twentieth century within the framework of trauma studies, proposing that the soundscapes of imperial war were implicitly tinged with traces of physical suffering.

The Moral Case for the Development and Use of Autonomous Weapon Systems

ABSTRACT Autonomous Weapon Systems (AWS) are artificial intelligence systems that can make and act on decisions concerning the termination of enemy soldiers and installations without direct intervention from a human being. In this article, I provide the positive moral case for the development and use of supervised and fully autonomous weapons that can reliably adhere to the laws of war. Two strong, prima facie obligations make up the positive case. First, we have a strong moral reason to deploy AWS (in an otherwise just war) because such systems decrease the psychological and moral risk of soldiers and would-be soldiers. Drones protect against lethal risk, AWS protect against psychological and moral risk in addition to lethal risk. Second, we have a prima facie obligation to develop such technologies because, once developed, we could employ forms of non-lethal warfare that would substantially reduce the risk of suffering and death for enemy combatants and civilians alike. These two arguments, covering both sides of a conflict, represent the normative hill that those in favor of a ban on autonomous weapons must overcome. Finally, I demonstrate that two recent objections to AWS fail because they misconstrue the way in which technology is used and conceptualized in modern warfare.

A War Tactician: K̲h̲ālid b. al-Walīd

K̲h̲ālid was an extraordinary warrior and commander who lived in 7th century and led Muslim armies against Romans and Sassanids. He managed to fight against two great power of the day at the same time in an unusual way. Just flashing back to his childhood or youth to understand his military carrier is not sufficient. His membership to brave Arab tribes or his desert environment also does not give necessary information to explain his professional diplomatic attempts, detailed field plans, and elegant army order on the battlefields. We will try to make some inferences about his career by examining his tactics in the context of his military activities during the Caliph Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq period. The Caliph Abū Bakr had a clear vision and strategy for conquests, and he was trusting his commanders by giving them space to lead the armies, not interfering in all details. He had also analyzed the sociology of the region well. K̲h̲ālid b. al-Walīd portrays a successful commander who does not interfere with the general politics of the caliph but is very meticulous in applying his orders to the field. On the other hand, the Caliph 'Umar ibn-al-Khaṭṭâb unlike Abū Bakr, wanted to manage all the details on the battlefields. For this reason, although K̲h̲ālid had a successful period with Abū Bakr, he could not work with ‘Umar for a long time. K̲h̲ālid b. al-Walīd's originality is that each war is unlike the previous one and develops shocking tactics. He didn't have a standard tactic, and his moves were not familiar and predictable. He could even apply different methods in similar situations. The way he started and ended wars subverted the tactics of the enemy Arab, Roman, and Persian armies. In general, the battles he managed were lasting shorter than expected. He easily sensed the weak points of enemy commanders and soldiers such as pride or fear and could use these weaknesses well. In this article, we will revisit some examples and try to analyze the tactics K̲h̲ālid used during his military career caused the fall of the Sassanid Iraq and damaged the Roman Levant

Elegy for a Love Still Breathing

Within this poem, I wanted to explore the nuance within Achilles and Patroclus’ dynamic, taking a romantic interpretation of their relationship. After reading the Iliad by Homer, I have been fascinated by the ways in which these characters contrast each other; though both men are powerful fighters, Homer pays particular attention to Patroclus' kindness and often presents him as Achilles’ narrative foil. I was interested in exploring why a character such as Patroclus, who is depicted by his gentleness, would choose to remain by the side of somebody as prideful and aggressive as Achilles. This is something which other authors have previously presented in many different ways. For example, Madeline Miller’s novel The Song of Achilles (2011) presents Patroclus as a gentle individual who dislikes fighting, though within my own poem I wanted to acknowledge Patroclus’ capacity for violence when war necessitates that he kills enemy soldiers. Therefore, I experimented with the idea that Patroclus’ resentment at Achilles’ actions might manifest itself in the form of violent desires despite his great loyalty to, and love for, Achilles. To explore this conflict and bittersweet love within their relationship, I used the stereotypically romantic form of the sonnet. Furthermore, Patroclus’ sense of infatuation begins and ends the poem, as I wanted to highlight his tragic entrapment within his feelings for Achilles.

Nadežda Petrović, drugo ime za humanizam

Nadežda Petrović belongs to the constellation of masterful human beings who are the pride of their national histories, dominating their era and radiating above and beyond it, surpassing both their immediate environment and the age they live in. These persons are instrumental in the development and growth of their people, tracing the path to be followed in their work, to catch up to future times and other cultures. A member of this constellation of extraordinary persons, Nadežda Petrović has overcome the boundaries of time, historical development, humanist ideas and local culture in her short, prematurely ended life. Superior, self-confident and tenacious, she had an unusual intelligence that was able to perceive the entire vast expanse of the world. With her love for her people, she rushed to illuminate and broaden the views of her contemporaries and clear the path for future generations with her vision, her ideals and her sacrifice. Patriotism was the deepest of Nadežda's passions. At the time of Balkan wars, Nadežda recognised her desire and her capability to help her homeland as her mission in life, staying true to her positions from 1903 and annexation crisis of 1908. She went where the situation was the direst, she worked and helped on the front lines, because her fighting spirit would not let her stay in the rear. As a volunteer nurse, Nadežda followed the soldiers from battlefield to battlefield, suffering all types of weather without complaint. She would walk and she would ride, her hospital or ambulance reaching all the places she was needed. She also dressed the wounds of captured enemy soldiers. The wounded and the sick blessed her, doctors praised and admired her. The work was too hard and in tending to others, caught in a typhoid outbreak, Nadežda fell ill and recovered slowly. The beginning of World War I was yet another summons for Nadežda, to put down her paintbrush and continue with her humanitarian work. She immediately reported to the High Command to get her marching orders. Many women tended to the wounded, but only a few were accepted into the real military medical service by the Surgeon General of the High Command. Nadežda Petrović was one of them. She was assigned to the field hospital of the Danube division. In letters written during this time, Nadežda's words are impressive, touching in their profound honesty of experiencing human helplessness in the face of the tragedy of mass deaths. Soldiers knew Nadežda from the moments that transcended the strength of ordinary humans. She was highly appreciated, her courage and self-sacrifice earned her great respect. During the periods of cease-fire, after the victory of the Serbian army in the battles of Cer and Kolubara, at the beginning of 1915, Nadežda went to Skopje where her family was located. Already in February that year, Nadežda resumed her war duties. The High Command offered her a choice of several proposed positions, and told her that she didn't have to go back to Valjevo. Without a second thought, she picked the most difficult post - her hospital in Valjevo. Following the battle of Suvobor near Valjevo, an outbreak of spotted typhus fever claimed the lives of soldiers, civilians, doctors and medics in terrifying numbers. Nadežda arrived to Valjevo from a field hospital as aid sent to the small medical team. At the end of March, Nadežda was infected with typhoid. When the infection finally caught up to her, she was completely exhausted: she would only be a patient in the Valjevo hospital for a week. Volunteer nurse of the 1st Reserve Hospital in Valjevo, Nadežda Petrović, died on 3 April 1915.

The Enigma of the Hyksos, Volume 1: ASOR Conference Boston 2017—ICAANE Conference Munich 2018—Collected Papers

The Enigma of the Hyksos, Volume 1: ASOR Conference Boston 2017—ICAANE Conference Munich 2018—Collected Papers

Нерепатрійовані: судові процеси над військовополоненими на Дніпропетровщині (друга половина 1940-х рр.)

One of the results of the Second World War was the presence of a large number of the Germans, Austrian, Romanian and other prisoners of war on the territory of the Soviet Union. Their were actively used in the postwar reconstructions. The article is devoted to the analysis of personal histories of the former enemy soldiers who were kept in the USSR after 1945 and then they were convicted in the 1940's. The main sources are the materials of the Security Service of Ukraine in Dnipropetrovsk Oblast archives. The mentioned above archival materials show that, despite the prosecution, the final sentence for prisoners of war was the same and they had to spend 25 years in labor camps. Particular attention is paid to the cases of George Ionescu, Rudolf Petri, Paul Edgard, Joseph Lecker and Johann Pikanski. In 1945–1950 they were held in detention camps No. 315 or 460, which were located on the territory of Dnipropetrovsk region. Each of these persons chose their own surviving strategy in the camp – escape attempt, avoiding work, finding opportunities to obtain information about the outside world, honestly abiding by rules or sabotage. However, despite the chosen way, the process of repatriation was delayed for all of them until the 1950s. Only after the «Thaw» («Vidlyhy») epoch and the amnesty laws passing, the prisoners got possibility to return to their homeland.

Autonomous Weapons Systems and the Contextual Nature of Hors de Combat Status

Autonomous weapons systems (AWS), sometimes referred to as “killer robots”, are receiving ever more attention, both in public discourse as well as by scholars and policymakers. Much of this interest is connected to emerging ethical and legal problems linked to increasing autonomy in weapons systems, but there is a general underappreciation for the ways in which existing law might impact on these new technologies. In this paper, we argue that as AWS become more sophisticated and increasingly more capable than flesh-and-blood soldiers, it will increasingly be the case that such soldiers are “in the power” of those AWS which fight against them. This implies that such soldiers ought to be considered hors de combat, and not targeted. In arguing for this point, we draw out a broader conclusion regarding hors de combat status, namely that it must be viewed contextually, with close reference to the capabilities of combatants on both sides of any discreet engagement. Given this point, and the fact that AWS may come in many shapes and sizes, and can be made for many different missions, we argue that each particular AWS will likely need its own standard for when enemy soldiers are deemed hors de combat. We conclude by examining how these nuanced views of hors de combat status might impact on meaningful human control of AWS.

Health Justice for Unjust Combatants

ABSTRACT Are field medics morally permitted to treat unjust combatants? I distinguish between two kinds of enemy combatants: reactivated ones who will rejoin the fight, and deactivated ones who will not rejoin the fight. Helen Frowe has argued that field medics are not permitted to treat reactivated combatants but is silent about deactivated ones. First, I argue that Frowe’s account plausibly extends to a moral prohibition on treating deactivated combatants in addition to reactivated ones. Second, I argue that the best argument for treating deactivated enemy soldiers extends also to reactivated ones but holds only for groups, which undermines Frowe’s general position. I thus defend the mainstream view, enshrined in the Geneva Convention, that the treatment of deactivated unjust combatants (and maybe, in some cases, reactivated unjust combatants) by partisan or nonpartisan field medics is often all-things-considered morally obligatory.

No Useless Mouth: Waging War and Fighting Hunger in the American Revolution by Rachel B. Herrmann

Reviewed by: No Useless Mouth: Waging War and Fighting Hunger in the American Revolution by Rachel B. Herrmann Natale A. Zappia (bio) No Useless Mouth: Waging War and Fighting Hunger in the American Revolution rachel b. herrmann Cornell University Press, 2019 298 pp. Sweeping in scope yet tightly focused on a meticulously driven methodology, Rachel B. Herrmann's No Useless Mouth: Waging War and Fighting Hunger in the American Revolution points the way toward new historiographical directions. Her analysis of the American Revolution from the perspective of Indigenous and African Americans has become increasingly familiar in recent years, highlighting overlooked contestations of power asserted by marginalized communities during the momentous years before and after the American Revolution. However, Herrmann takes a new and innovative turn, diving into the archives to parse out the ways that this power intersected with attempts to declare, maintain, and control food sovereignty. What results is a fascinating journey into a history [End Page 976] that many if not most readers of these pages today have left behind generations ago—the battle over hunger. This history, Herrmann contends, dramatically shaped warfare, diplomacy, and freedom struggled over by formerly enslaved communities and Native Americans. These groups faced uncertain (and usually disastrous) consequences resulting from the American Revolution. During this dynamic period of time when freedom was up for grabs, these communities defined their liberty, in part, through their ability to fight hunger. In contrast, British and American military commanders, diplomats, and government officials waged "victual warfare" and/or "victual imperialism" (Herrmann's useful terms) to limit or undermine Indigenous sovereignty and African American freedom. This tension between political rights and physical sustenance has been mostly ignored or forgotten by scholars as food insecurity (which still remains a scourge across the United States and around the world) became a solvable—rather than intractable and timeless—problem. Those who seek to analyze the history of starvation, Herrmann points out, must carefully assess the narrative descriptions and contemporary understanding of what starvation actually meant. Doing so, then, means further centering food and hunger as categories of historical analyses—and No Useless Mouth seeks to do exactly that. Simultaneously, Herrmann also conjoins diplomatic history with these concerns in ways that have eluded previous scholarship on the American Revolution. Indeed, No Useless Mouth, Herrmann points out, "challenges how we think about the American Revolution" (3), incorporating the diplomatic efforts of Indigenous nations and freed people of African descent. Further, Herrmann takes us to multiple locales across the revolutionary Atlantic, from the Cherokee and Creek worlds of the American Southeast to the Indigenous Old Northwest to the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) heartland of the Northeast to Loyalist Nova Scotia and even to Sierra Leone. Herrmann's ambitious yet measured approach offers a refreshing roadmap for new (and senior) scholars interested in expanding the parameters and dimensions of the Atlantic World. Herrmann's most important interventions revolve around historicizing hunger and emphasizing the importance of Indigenous and African American power during a historical period when the relationship between colonized and colonizers was in flux during the age of revolutions. The title of the book originates from the 1780 writings of Quebec governor General [End Page 977] Frederick Haldimand. As Herrmann skillfully deconstructs this and many other diplomatic passages, Haldimand's phrase alludes to Indigenous power to wage war and "[foster] the spread of hunger among the enemy soldiers and civilians alike" (4). No Useless Mouth, in fact, "turns these narratives on their heads … finding] more rather than less power in Indian communities" (4). Herrmann envisions a similar dynamic among communities of African descent who fled as Loyalist communities to other parts of the British Empire. Herrmann reveals that "[if] formerly enslaved black colonists were legally empowered to fight hunger themselves, then both groups possessed more authority than scholars have supposed" (5). As she reveals, this effect clearly resonated in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone. No Useless Mouth is divided into three parts: "Power Rising," "Power in Flux," and "Power Waning." Part I focuses on Indigenous food diplomacy. In this section, Herrmann weaves her argument through familiar historiographical terrain, scouring diplomatic records between the fledgling United States and once-dominant and still formidable Indigenous confederacies. Despite the...