Endurance Sports Research Articles

Differences in Anthropometric Characteristics and Body Composition of Athletes in Cyclic Endurance-Type Activities: A Case Study

Endurance-type disciplines (running, cycling, biathlon) define the cyclic structure of an athlete's movements, which, in addition to functional parameters, also includes an adequate morphological profile and body composition. Based on the detection, analysis and evaluation of these parameters, it is possible to define the body composition of the competitors as well as possible mutual differences even though it is endurance sports. The results are all the more relevant if the profile of top athletes with notable results is being evaluated. The current case study analyzes the morphological dimensions and body composition of competitors of three different disciplines (middle and long distances, cycling, biathlon) of top-level competitors, members of national teams. The study was conducted: Uroš Gutić (UG) - runner middle and long distances, member of AK "Sarajevo" and the BIH athletic national team; Milan Milivojević (MM) – cyclist, member of Cycling club "Borac" Čačak (Serbia), and the member Serbian national team; Stefan Lopatić (SL) – biathlete, member SK "Romanija" Pale, and BIH national team.

Differences in Anthropometric Characteristics and Body Composition of Athletes in Cyclic Endurance-Type Activities: A Case Study

Endurance-type disciplines (running, cycling, biathlon) define the cyclic structure of an athlete's movements, which, in addition to functional parameters, also includes an adequate morphological profile and body composition. Based on the detection, analysis and evaluation of these parameters, it is possible to define the body composition of the competitors as well as possible mutual differences even though it is endurance sports. The results are all the more relevant if the profile of top athletes with notable results is being evaluated. The current case study analyzes the morphological dimensions and body composition of competitors of three different disciplines (middle and long distances, cycling, biathlon) of top-level competitors, members of national teams. The study was conducted: Uroš Gutić (UG) - runner middle and long distances, member of AK "Sarajevo" and the BIH athletic national team; Milan Milivojević (MM) – cyclist, member of Cycling club "Borac" Čačak (Serbia), and the member Serbian national team; Stefan Lopatić (SL) – biathlete, member SK "Romanija" Pale, and BIH national team.

May Strenuous Endurance Sports Activity Damage the Cardiovascular System of Healthy Athletes? A Narrative Review.

The positive effects of physical activity are countless, not only on the cardiovascular system but on health in general. However, some studies suggest a U-shape relationship between exercise volume and effects on the cardiovascular system. On the basis of this perspective, moderate-dose exercise would be beneficial compared to a sedentary lifestyle, while very high-dose physical activity would paradoxically be detrimental. We reviewed the available evidence on the potential adverse effects of very intense, prolonged exercise on the cardiovascular system, both acute and chronic, in healthy athletes without pre-existing cardiovascular conditions. We found that endurance sports activities may cause reversible electrocardiographic changes, ventricular dysfunction, and troponin elevation with complete recovery within a few days. The theory that repeated bouts of acute stress on the heart may lead to chronic myocardial damage remains to be demonstrated. However, male veteran athletes with a long sports career show an increased prevalence of cardiovascular abnormalities such as electrical conduction delay, atrial fibrillation, myocardial fibrosis, and coronary calcifications compared to non-athletes. It must be underlined that the cause–effect relationship between such abnormalities and the exercise and, most importantly, the prognostic relevance of such findings remains to be established.

The impact of elite endurance activity on cardiac remodelling in asians: an echocardiographic case control study

Abstract Background Prolonged endurance training results in physiological changes to elite athletes' hearts. These changes include thickened left ventricular (LV) walls and dilated left and right ventricles that may overlap with those from pathological conditions such as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, dilated cardiomyopathy and arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy. While reference ranges for elite black and white athletes have been published to facilitate differentiation of physiology from pathology, data on Asian athletes remains scarce. With increasing Asian representation in international sport, it is important to ascertain the extent of physiological cardiac remodelling in Asian athletes. Purpose This study aimed to compare echocardiographic parameters of elite endurance athletes (EAs) and non-endurance controls and describe reference ranges in this population of Asian athletes. Methods Consecutive elite athletes engaging in endurance sport were identified from the Singapore Sports Cardiology Registry from January to October 2018. Controls were obtained from 3 sources: (a) skill-based athletes from the Singapore Sports Cardiology Registry, (b) healthy non-athletic volunteers from a national atrial fibrillation registry, and (c) healthy non-athletic volunteers from a national heart failure registry. All participants underwent resting two-dimensional, M-mode and Doppler transthoracic echocardiography and findings from EA were compared with controls. Results 165 participants (55 EAs, 110 controls) were analysed (median age 29 years, male gender n=95; 58%, Chinese ethnicity n=55 for EAs; 100%) Baseline characteristics between both groups were comparable (Table 1). EAs had larger LV wall thickness (9.2 vs. 8.1 mm, p<0.001), LV cavity size (50.7 vs. 48.2 mm, p<0.001), LV mass index (98.4 vs. 73.8 g/m2, p<0.001), aortic root diameter at sinus of Valsalva (30.6 vs. 28.9 mm, p<0.01), right ventricular dimensions and biatrial volumes compared to controls (Table 2). Similar results were noted after indexing to body surface area. These associations also persisted after adjusting for age. Conclusion(s) Endurance activity in elite Singaporean Chinese athletes was associated with significant structural and functional cardiac remodeling compared to controls. Reference ranges for echocardiographic parameters in this population were described, allowing for more accuracy when differentiating physiology from pathology in Asian athletes. Funding Acknowledgement Type of funding sources: None.

Linear Discriminant Analysis of Various Physiological and Psychological Parameters among Indian Elite Male Athletes of Different Types of Sports

The aim of this study was to categorize various physical, physiological, and psychological variables that discriminated among Indian elite male athletes participating in endurance sports (Group A, n=34, age=16.88±2.44 years), combat sports (Group B, n=35, age=17.40±1.37 years) and skill sports (Group C, n=34, age= 8.91±2.24 years) and non-athletic control group (Group D, N=33, years=18.48±2.03 years). Physical parameters included height, body weight, body fat percentage, lean body mass, muscle content, and total water content. Physiological parameters included heart rate variability and maximal aerobic power (VO2 max) measured using the Astrand protocol. Various psychological parameters were evaluated using Big Five Inventory and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory questionnaires. Discriminant analysis revealed three significant functions (P<0.05) contributing 65.7%, 25.8%, and 8.5% respectively to the model. After cross-validation, the resulting equation correctly classified 72.8% of endurance, combat, skill athletes, and control group. Total thirteen variables significantly (P<0.05) contributed to the discriminant analysis. The interpretation of the acquired discriminant functions was also based on the examination of the structure coefficients greater than 0.30. The athletes and control were discriminated mainly on VO2 max (structure coefficient, SC=0.741) in Function 1, body weight (SC=0.424), Lean body mass (SC=0.430), and muscle content (SC=0.574). This model substantiates the fact that elite male athletes show physical and physiological differences because of the different training regimens in their respective sports that conditioned them differently. In conclusion, these discriminant models could help in athlete’s induction, talent identification process and improving training programs.

Factors Determining the Choice of Healthy Diet by Kazakh Athletes of Various Sports

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 40-60% of human health depends on a lifestyle in which 25-30% is devoted to a rational diet. Therefore, by meeting physiological needs in accordance with a rational diet, athletes can adapt more quickly to the applied physical load and achieve better sport results. The aim of the study was to describe and compare the factors that determine the healthy diet of athletes of various sports. The study, which aimed to assess the factors determining healthy diet, involved 157 students of physical educa- tion and sports studies from the University of Almaty. Respondents were divided into 3 groups - sports games (volleyball, football, basketball, tennis) (n=85), endurance sports (long distance running, skiing, road cycling, triathlon (n=22), and combat sports (wrestling, judo, karate, boxing) (n=50). The questionnaire by Steptoe et al. (1995) was employed to establish the opinion of the investigated subjects on the factors that determine healthy and rational dietary choices of student athletes. Our research has shown that among the factors that determine the healthy diet of athletes of various sports, the main ones are health, the character of the chosen sport, and the athlete’s body composition. Factors such as current trends, the popularity of the food consumed, and the influence of family and friends are less important. The athletes we studied noted their efforts to eat and live healthy, most of them were satisfied with their health and their body mass. A greater variety in respondents’ responses was observed when assessing the composition of food supplements, the impact of discount special offers on product selection. The responses received on adherence to the diet indicate that the athletes studied do not always observe the correct diet

Effect of hypobaric hypoxia on hematological parameters related to oxygen transport, blood volume and oxygen consumption in adolescent endurance-training athletes

Background/ObjectiveTo analyze the effect of altitude on hematological and cardiorespiratory variables in adolescent athletes participating in aerobic disciplines. Methods21 females and 89 males participated in the study. All were adolescent elite athletes engaged in endurance sports (skating, running and cycling) belonging to two groups: permanent residents in either low altitude (LA, 966 m) or moderate altitude (MA, 2640 m). Hematocrit (Hct), hemoglobin concentration ([Hb]), total hemoglobin mass (Hbt), blood, plasma and erythrocyte volumes (BV, PV and EV), VO2peak and other cardiorespiratory parameters were evaluated. ResultsSex differences were evident both in LA and HA skating practitioners, the males having higher significant values than the females in oxygen transport-related hematological parameters and VO2peak. The effect of altitude residence was also observed in Hct, [Hb], Hbt and EV with increased (14%–18%) values in the hematological parameters and higher EV (5%–24%). These results matched the significantly higher values of VO2peak measured in MA residents. However, BV and PV did not show differences between LA and MA residents in any case. Sports discipline influenced neither the hematological variables nor most of the cardiorespiratory parameters. ConclusionsLA and MA adolescent skaters showed sex differences in hematological variables. Endurance-trained male adolescent residents at MA had an increased erythropoietic response and a higher VO2peak compared to their counterparts residing and training at LA. These responses are similar in the three aerobic sports studied, indicating that the variables described are highly sensitive to hypoxia irrespective of the sports discipline.

Dampak Pelatihan Menggunakan High Intensity Interval Training Terhadap Peningkatan Hasil Ergometer Rowing Test 6000 M

Rowing is the dominant endurance sport, so rowing trainers must be more observant in providing forms of training to improve physical condition, especially in the endurance component. The High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) method was chosen as the training method used to improve the results of the 6000 m rowing test ergonometer. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of the High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) method on the results of increasing the 6000 m rowing test ergometer. The method used in this study is an experimental method with a research design of One Group Pre-test Post-test Design. 4 Rowing athletes in Bandung were selected and used as samples in this study. The training was carried out for 4 weeks with a total of 12 meetings and 3 meetings a week. The instrument used is a rowing ergometer 6000 m test. The results of this study showed that there was an effect of the high intensity interval training (HIIT) method on the 6000 m rowing test ergometer.

Eating disorders risk assessment in men who practice team sports.

IntroductionEating disorders (EDs) are characterized by an overconcern about body weight and shape. Men who practice team sports have been systematically excluded from the high-risk eating disorders groups. This exclusion could be challenged based on misinformation about the prevalence of actual eating disorders within these athletes, with the previous evidence showing significant body image concerns among them and the under-diagnosis risk in populations of men.ObjectiveTo assess eating disorders risk in Spanish adult men who practice team sports.Methodology:An observational study was conducted with 276 athlete men aged between 18 and 55 years: 60.5% were team sports players and 39.5% were athletes of aesthetic, endurance, and weight-category sports. Data were collected via an online form including a general assessment sheet and four validated questionnaires: The Eating Habits Questionnaire for Athletes (CHAD), the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-40), the Inventory of Eating Disorders (EDI-2), and the Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ). Data analysis was conducted with the software IBM SPSS 28.0.0.ResultsAbout 20.36% of team sports players presented a clinical profile compatible with an ED diagnosis. There were no significant differences comparing EDs potential cases between team sports players and athletes playing sports categorized as high EDs risk. There were significant differences when analyzing the existence of EDs between the different groups of age, family pressure, and coach pressure. The U-value of the Mann–Whitney test presented significant differences when assessing the influence of BMI over the development of EDs.ConclusionMen who practice team sports may also be a high-risk group for the development of EDs. Being younger than 21 years, having a BMI larger than 25 kg/m2, and perceiving high-level pressure from the coach and/or family would be risk factors for EDs in men who practice team sports.

Effects of ibuprofen during 42-km trail running on oxidative stress, muscle fatigue, muscle damage and performance: a randomized controlled trial

ABSTRACT Up to 75% of marathon runners ingest non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) during competition. Despite the doubt whether or not they contribute to performance, the effect of NSAID in endurance sports is unclear. We evaluated the effect of ibuprofen (IBU) use on oxidative stress, muscle damage, physical performance, and vertical jump of runners participating in a 42-km-trail running. The sample consisted of 12 men randomly divided into 2 groups: a placebo group (placebo) and an ibuprofen group (IBG). A 400-mg IBU capsule was administered to the IBG 15 min prior to the start of the trial and during the course after 5 h. In the intergroup analysis, placebo 70.1% increase (p < 0.0001; Cohen’s d = 4.77) of the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS); the IBG exhibited a 31.46% increase of the sulphhydryl groups (SH) (p = 0.024, Cohen’s d = 0.27), 55% of squat jump (SJ) (p < 0.01; Cohen’s d = 1.41) with no significant effect on creatine kinase (CK), pace, speed, and finish time. In summary, IBU had positive evidence on oxidative stress and muscle fatigue, but had no effect on physical performance and muscle damage.

Eating disorder risks and awareness among female elite cyclists: an anonymous survey

BackgroundEating disorders (EDs) are an increasingly recognized concern in professional sports. Previous studies suggests that both female gender and endurance sports put athletes at risk. Female elite cyclists are hence of specific interest. The present study aimed at evaluating the distribution of the individual risk of ED in this group. Further the association between individual risk and both the awareness for the topic ED and the deviation from “normal” weight was depicted.MethodsFemale cyclists registered with the Union Cycliste Internationale were contacted via email or facebook and asked to complete a survey comprising age, weight, the Eating-Attitude-Test (EAT-26), and questions regarding ED awareness. The observed distribution of the EAT-26 score was compared to results from previous studies in normal subjects and athletes. The distribution of the ED awareness was described and ED awareness was correlated with the EAT-26 score. Both the deviation from ideal weight and the body mass index (BMI) were correlated with the EAT-26 score.ResultsOf the 409 registered athletes 386 could be contacted, 122 completed the questionnaire. Age ranged from 20-44yrs, BMI from 17.0 to 24.6 kg/m2. In the EAT-26, 39 cyclists (32.0%) scored above 20 points indicating a potential benefit from clinical evaluation, 34 cyclists (27.9%) scored 10–19 points suggesting disordered eating. Sixteen athletes (13.2%) had been treated for an ED. About 70% of athletes had been pressured to lose weight. The mean EAT-26 score was above the average observed in normal female populations. It was also above the average observed in many female athlete populations, but lower than in other leanness focussed sports. More than 80%of athletes perceived elite cyclists at risk for developing ED. Increased ED awareness and deviation from the ideal weight were associated with higher EAT-26 scores, but not the body mass index.ConclusionFemale cyclists are at risk of developing ED and they are aware of this risk. To improve their health and well-being, increased efforts to support elite cyclists and their teams in preventive activities and early detection are crucial.

Longitudinal trends in human accuracy: A five-decade analysis (1969–2019) of free-throw shooting in the NBA

Describing, understanding, predicting, and controlling the improvement of athletic performance are pivotal aspects of sport sciences. Longitudinal trends of the achievements of elite performers, mainly in endurance (e.g., cycling, running, skiing, and swimming) and explosive-power (e.g., jumping, throwing, and weightlifting) sports, were examined in a series of studies. One of the observations in these studies was the significant improvement in performance in the above-mentioned sports over the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. In addition, several factors that can account for the observed improvements were outlined and discussed in the previous literature. The current study contributes to this line of research by examining the rate of improvement in free-throw (FT) shooting of National Basketball Association (NBA) players over a five-decade period –1969–2019. As opposed to many power and endurance sporting events, FT shooting is a fine-motor task performed in a stable and predicted environment. Based on an analysis of more than 2.6 million FT shots, we found that from 1969 to 2019 the FT shooting accuracy fluctuated at around 75%, but did not show any steady trend of improvement. We discuss this finding from a skill-acquisition perspective.

Early repolarization in adolescent athletes: A gender comparison of ECG and echocardiographic characteristics.

The early repolarization pattern (ERp) is an electrocardiographic finding previously associated with arrhythmic risk in adults. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the prevalence and characteristics of ERp in a group of adolescent athletes according to gender. Furthermore, potential associations with clinical, electrocardiographic, and echocardiographic parameters are explored. In this cross-sectional study young athletes (age < 18 years) were consecutively enrolled during the annual pre-participation evaluation, undergoing also transthoracic echocardiography assessment from January 2015 to March 2020. The prevalence of ERp was 27% in the whole population. Athletes with ERp were more frequently men practicing endurance sports. Women with ERp showed lower heart rate at rest, greater posterior, and relative ventricular wall thickness than those without ERp. Men with ERp presented higher systolic blood pressure at peak exercise, greater septal wall thickness, and indexed left ventricular mass than those without ERp. Both genders with ERp showed increased QRS voltage and narrower QRS duration. The ERp phenotype in men was more frequently notched with higher amplitude and ascending ST segment. Women's ERp presented more frequently a slurred morphology, especially in the inferior leads, and horizontal ST slope. No differences emerged in the occurrence of arrhythmias at rest and during maximal exercise test between groups, even considering higher risk phenotypes. ERp is an ECG finding compatible with normal cardiac adaptations to training in young athletes. ERp demonstrated gender differences regarding phenotypes previously associated with increased cardiovascular risk, not showing any differences in arrhythmias during maximal exercise test.

Physiological and psychological variables among elite female athletes from three categories of sports and non-athletes

Background: The aim of the study was to categorize various body composition, physiological and psychological variables among Indian elite female athletes participating in endurance sports (Group A, n= 22, age= 17.01±0.99 years), combat sports (Group B, n= 20, age= 19.15±3.63 years) and skill sports (Group C, n= 25, age= 18.80±2.21 years) and non- athletic control group (Group D, N= 23, years= 18.34±1.87 years). Methodology: Physical parameters included body fat percent, lean body mass, muscle content and total water content. Physiological parameters included time domain and frequency domain parameters of heart rate variability and maximal aerobic power (VO2 max) measured using Astrand protocol. Various psychological parameters were evaluated using Big Five Inventory and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory questionnaires. Results: Discriminant analysis revealed three significant functions (P&lt;0.05) contributing 78.2%, 13.2% and 8.7% respectively to the model. After cross validation, the resulting equation correctly classified 68.3% of endurance, combat, skill athletes and control group. Total eighteen variables significantly (P&lt;0.05) contributed to the discriminant analysis. The interpretation of the acquired discriminant functions was also based on examination of the structure coefficients greater than 0.30.

Neurophysiological Markers for Monitoring Exercise and Recovery Cycles in Endurance Sports.

The current study analyzes the suitability and reliability of selected neurophysiological and vegetative nervous system markers as biomarkers for exercise and recovery in endurance sport. Sixty-two healthy men and women, endurance trained and moderately trained, performed two identical acute endurance tests (running trial 1 and running trial 2) followed by a washout period of four weeks. Exercise protocol consisted of an acute running trial lasting 60 minutes. An intensity corresponding to 95% of the heart rate at individual anaerobic threshold for 40 minutes was followed by 20 minutes at 110%. At pre-exercise, post-exercise, three hours post-exercise and 24 hours post-exercise, experimental diagnostics on Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), heart rate variability (HRV), Stroop Color and Word Test (SCWT), and Short-Form McGill Pain Questionnaire (SF-MPQ) were performed. Significant changes over time were found for all parameters (<i>p</i> &lt; .05). Furthermore, there was an approached statistical significance in the interaction between gender and training status in BDNF regulation (F₍₃₎ = 2.43; <i>p</i> = 0.06), while gender differences were found only for LF/HF-ratio (3hPoEx, F₍₃₎ = 3.40; <i>p</i> = 0.002). Regarding the reliability, poor ICC-values (&lt; 0.5) were found for BDNF, Stroop sensitivity and pNN50, while all other parameters showed moderate ICC-values (0.5-0.75). Plasma-BDNF, SCWT performance, pain perception and all HRV parameters are suitable exercise-sensitive markers after an acute endurance exercise. Moreover, pain perception, SCWT reaction time and all HRV parameters show a moderate reliability, others rather poor. In summary, a selected neurophysiological and vegetative marker panel can be used to determine exercise load and recovery in endurance sports, but its repeatability is limited due to its vaguely reliability.

Dietary Nitrate Does Not Improve Neuromuscular Performance And Match-play Demands In Elite Female Hockey Players.

PURPOSE: Beetroot juice is a commonly used ergogenic aid that contains high levels of inorganic nitrate (NO3-) and that its intake has proven effectivity at increasing blood nitric oxide (NO) concentrations. The ingestion of beetroot juice has shown good evidence of benefits in endurance sports while team sports has been barely studied. In our knowledge, only a few studies have been developed in team sports athletes. The present study was designed to compare the acute effects of beetroot juice supplementation on physical performance and match-play demands in elite female field hockey players METHODS: Eleven well-trained female hockey players (22.78 ± 5.12 years) participated during the preparatory period of their hockey season in this study. Participants were randomly divided into two groups undergoing a neuromuscular test battery with ingestion of 70 mL beetroot juice (6.4 mmol NO3-) or 70 mL placebo (0.04 mmol NO3-) in two separated days with one week between protocols. A neuromuscular test battery consisted in different test such as; countermovement jump (CMJ), isometric handgrip strength (IHS), and repeated sprint ability test (RSA) were realized. Afterwards a simulated hockey match play (2 x 20 minutes) was realized and the data was recorded by Global Positioning System (GPS). RESULTS: No significant improvements were observed in any physical parameters analysed comparing beetroot juice versus placebo ingestion, CMJ (p = 0.776), IHS (p = 0.829), RSA (p = 0.466). Therefore, no differences were reported in any physical match demands measured by GPS (i.e., total distance covered, number of accelerations/decelerations, etc) (p = 0.063-0.941) CONCLUSIONS: Beetroot juice acute supplementation did not produce any statistically significant improvement in physical performance or match-play demands in elite female field hockey players

Mild Left Ventricular Hypertrophy in Middle-Age Male Athletes as a Sign of Masked Arterial Hypertension.

Mild left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) has been considered as one of the possible structural, physiological adaptations to regular, intensive physical activity. However, it may also appear as one of the subclinical complications of hypertension. In athletes, the differential diagnosis between these two entities may be complicated as regular physical activity may potentially mask the presence of arterial hypertension. We sought to determine the relation between LVH in middle-age athletes and the presence of hypertension. The study included 71 healthy, male long-time amateur athletes (mean age 41 ± 6 years, 83% endurance and 17% power sports) without known hypertension or any other cardiovascular diseases and with normal self-measured and office blood pressure. All subjects underwent resting electrocardiogram, transthoracic echocardiography, maximal exercise test on a treadmill and ambulatory blood pressure monitoring. LVH was diagnosed as left ventricular wall diameter >11 mm. Hypertension was defined as mean 24 h systolic blood pressure (SBP) ≥ 130 mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure (DBP) ≥ 80 mmHg. Exaggerated blood pressure response (EBPR) to exercise was defined as SBP ≥ 210 mmHg. LVH (range > 11 to 14 mm) was found in 20 subjects (28%) and hypertension was diagnosed in 33 subjects (46%). Athletes with LVH were more likely to have hypertension than those without LVH (70% vs. 37%, p = 0.01). EBPR to exercise was found equally common in athletes with and without LVH (35% vs. 29%, p = 0.68), but more often in subjects with hypertension (51% vs. 13%, p < 0.001). Presence of LVH and hypertension was equally common in the studied endurance and power sport athletes (p = 0.66 and p = 0.79, respectively). In comparison to athletes without LVH, those with LVH had larger left atrial size (26 ± 6 vs. 21 ± 4 cm2, p < 0.001) and a tendency for lower left ventricular diastolic function (E/A 1.2 ± 0.4 vs. 1.5 ± 0.4, p = 0.05) and a larger ascending aorta diameter (34 ± 3 vs. 32 ± 3, p = 0.05), but a similar left ventricular end-diastolic diameter (51 ± 3 vs. 51 ± 4, p = 0.71). The presence of mild left ventricular hypertrophy in middle-age male amateur athletes with normal home and office blood pressure may be considered as a potential sign of masked hypertension. It should not be overlooked as an element of a physiological adaptation to exercise and may warrant further medical evaluation with ambulatory blood pressure monitoring.

Athletes heart in long distance runners: Fact or fiction?

Background and Aims : Since 1899 when Henschen (Sweden) described enlargement of the hearts in endurance sportsmen, there is much discussion about the effects of endurance sport on the heart. In 1959 Friedberg wrote that the athletes heart should be seen as an overloaded heart. Nowadays endurance sports like longdistance running, cycling and trathlon are very popular One of the most important questions is wether we could overload a healthy heart by extensive exercise. During extensive exercise the skeletal muscles will have een increase in bloodflow from 1 to 20 l/min.

Effects of aerobic and strength training on depression, anxiety, and health self-perception levels during the COVID-19 pandemic.

This study aimed at comparing the depression and anxiety levels, and health self-perception during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic among subjects who practice aerobic, strength, and mixed (aerobic and strength) exercises and nonsports participants. We included 304 Brazilians of both sexes in this cross-sectional study. All participants were recruited through online advertisement and completed a self-administered questionnaire regarding the personal information, level of restriction adopted, physical activity, and mood state screening (Patient Health Questionnaire-9 and General Anxiety Disorder-7). We divided the participants into four groups: strength sports group (CrossFit or strength training), aerobic/endurance sports groups (running, cycling, triathlon, or swimming), mixed sports groups (individuals who practice endurance and strength sports), and nonsports group. The Kruskal-Wallis test showed a significant effect of the group on the depression and anxiety levels. Meanwhile, the post-hoc comparisons showed a significantly lower depression level in the mixed and aerobic sports groups than in the strength sports and nonsports groups, and a significantly lower anxiety level in the mixed and aerobic sports groups than in the nonsports group. Furthermore, participants in the mixed, strength, and aerobic sports groups presented a better level of health self-assessment than the nonsports group, and those in the mixed sports group had a better level of health self-assessment than the strength or aerobic sports groups. Individuals practicing aerobic exercises present lower depression and anxiety levels than those practicing strength training and are inactive. However, individuals who practice strength exercises and aerobics have the best levels of health perception.

A Self-Identification Typology of Endurance Sport Participants

Endurance sport participants cannot be regarded as homogenous, and no single marketing effort will satisfy all the individuals' needs. Endurance participants have been segmented based on a variety of bases. The current research moves away from the traditional segmentation bases and implements a novel segmentation base, namely self-identification (how participants classify themselves). An online survey resulted in 498 completed questionnaires from South African endurance sport participants. Self-identification proved to be a useful segmentation base as it revealed five segments (average, recreational, intermediate, hard-core, and veteran participants) with specific characteristics and needs. Furthermore, self-identification and their perceived skill level are directly linked to the level of commitment, lifestyle adaption, specific event attributes. The five segments identified will always be present at any endurance event, and therefore, this research helps event managers determine the appropriate outlets and messages to market their events.