Endorsement Of Benevolent Sexism Research Articles

Benevolent Sexism Predicts Gender Differences in the Distribution of Challenging Developmental Experiences at School

Existing research converges on the finding that females are attributed less agency than males, with one of the consequences being that they are allotted less challenging tasks than their male counterparts. We hypothesized that benevolent sexism accounts for this tendency. Hence, we predicted that parents advocate for the allotment of less challenging tasks to girls than to boys at school as a function of their endorsement of benevolent sexism. We tested for the effect using a sample of 153 Zimbabwean parents (103 female and 50 male; mean age of 34 years, SD = 3.23), whose female child was beginning form one. However, we also tested for other “control” variables—parents’ gender and their female child’s performance. Results indicated that benevolent sexism and the female child’s grade at grade 7 predicted the difference in scale of allotment of challenging tasks to boys versus girls. Taken together, these results suggest that benevolent sexism is the underlying sexist ideology that may limit girls’ exposure to challenging tasks and subjects at school, which may limit their chances of success and leadership later in their educational trajectories, and also in the occupations they would take in adulthood. Recommendations for changes in educational policy and related interventions are made in line with the present findings and existing literature.

Fragile And Feminine? The Effects Of Benevolent Sexism On College Women’s Physical Activity

Women are generally less active than men but the reasons for this gender disparity are not well understood. Benevolent sexism is a seemingly positive, covert form of sexism based on the idea that women are fragile and feminine to compliment the masculinity of men. Endorsement of benevolent sexism has been shown to have a negative impact on work and academic performance in women. Benevolent sexism may inform underlying reasons for the PA gender disparity. PURPOSE: To explore the relationship between PA and endorsement of benevolent sexism in young women. METHODS: Nineteen women (20.7±1.1 yrs.) completed the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) Short Form and the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI). The IPAQ was scored for total weekly; minutes of moderate-to-vigorous-PA (MVPA), MET-mins., and Sitting time (ST). The ASI is a 22-item questionnaire with two subscales measuring an individual’s endorsement of benevolent and hostile sexism; the mean score (range 0-5) on the benevolent sexism items was used for analyses. Spearman correlations assessed the associations between PA outcomes and endorsement of benevolent sexism. Participants were split into tertiles for each PA outcome. Wilcoxson Rank-Sum tests and Cohen’s d assessed the differences in ASI scores between the 1st (T1) and 3rd (T3) tertile. RESULTS: MVPA and MET-mins were both negatively associated with benevolent sexism (r=-0.32, r=-0.35, respectively) but there was no association with ST (r=-0.06). There was no significant difference between endorsement of benevolent sexism between participants in T1 and T3 for MVPA (x͂ and Interquartile Range) [T1;x͂=40,IQR=55), T3;x͂=685,IQR=150, p=0.84, d=-0.1] and MET-mins [T1;x͂=300,IQR=960), T3;x͂=2680,IQR=5040), p=0.44, d=0.72]. CONCLUSION: There was a small, inverse relationship between benevolent sexism and both MVPA and MET-mins, in the hypothesized direction. Additional work needs to further explore these relationships in larger, more diverse samples.

Variations in recalled familial messages about gender in relation to emerging adults’ gender, ethnic background, and current gender attitudes

ABSTRACT The present study examined heterosexual emerging adults’ retrospective accounts of gender-stereotypical messages about women and men from their families while growing up. We tested the reported frequencies of gendered messages in relation to the participants’ current beliefs about gender and their self-reported gender, ethnicity, and family backgrounds. The sample included 499 undergraduate students attending California public universities (48.5% female; M age = 19.31 years; 40.7% Latinx; 30.1% Asian American; 29.3% European American). Participants rated the frequencies that they recalled influential relatives describing men versus women as trustworthy, manipulative, gold-diggers, dangerous, or promiscuous. Women were more likely than men to recall the other gender characterized as untrustworthy, dangerous, and promiscuous; and men were more likely than women to recall the other gender described as manipulative and gold-diggers. Some reported gendered messages were more likely among Latinx participants (vs. other ethnic backgrounds) or those raised in single-mother (vs. dual-parent) households. Next, recalling gendered messages was related to holding congruent beliefs about the other gender and to women’s (but not men’s) endorsement of benevolent sexism. These findings highlight the potential importance of gendered messages in the development of gender-stereotypical beliefs in emerging adulthood.

The Privileged Sex? An Examination of Gendered Beliefs and Well-Being in Evangelical Men

The current study sought to investigate the relationship between benevolent sexism, gender role ideologies, and well-being in Evangelical men. Despite recent research that has established a relationship between restrictive gender beliefs and negative outcomes for women, few studies have addressed the relationship between these variables in men. Furthermore, Evangelical men’s specific experience has not been explored, in spite of religiosity’s association with these beliefs. Therefore, this study directly assessed relationship between well-being and two kinds of restrictive gender beliefs (i.e., benevolent sexism and traditional gender role ideology) in a sample of Evangelical men. Results showed that endorsement of benevolent sexism and traditional gender role ideology were related to lower levels of eudaimonic well-being for this population. Additionally, it was found that different patterns of relationship exist between restrictive gender beliefs and the two kinds of well-being: eudaimonic well-being (e.g., purpose and meaning) and hedonic well-being (e.g., pleasure and satisfaction) for this population. Specifically, the negative relationships with eudaimonic well-being were stronger than the negative relationships with aspects of hedonic well-being.

Negotiating the hierarchy: Social dominance orientation among women is associated with the endorsement of benevolent sexism

ObjectiveWe examine how women high in social dominance orientation reconcile supporting a social system that seemingly disadvantages them. We propose that women high in social dominance orientation are more likely to adopt a benevolently sexist worldview.MethodThis paper contains data from two survey studies. Study 1 used data from the New Zealand Attitudes and Values Survey (N = 10,485) which is a study of social attitudes, personality, and health outcomes among New Zealanders. Measures of Social Dominance Orientation, as well as Hostile and Benevolent Sexism were included in Study 1. Study 2 consisted of data from a smaller sample of American females (N = 269). In addition to the variables described above, we also measured the extent to which participants perceived the gender hierarchy to be legitimate and their perceived personal need for protection from men. Control variables included hostile sexism and demographic variables (participants’ age, race, and socioeconomic status).ResultsResults revealed that social dominance orientation was a stronger predictor of benevolent sexism among women compared to men. Serial mediation analysis was then conducted in Study 2. Study 2 confirmed the hypothesised mechanism: Higher social dominance orientation was associated with perceptions that women's low status is legitimate which, in turn, was associated with higher perceived personal need for protection from men. This was then associated with the endorsement of a benevolently sexist worldview.ConclusionOur findings suggest that social dominance orientation might help to explain why some women endorse benevolent sexism.

Dynamics Within Intimate Relationships and the Causes, Consequences, and Functions of Sexist Attitudes

Ambivalent sexism theory (Glick & Fiske, 1996) revolutionized understanding of sexist attitudes by revealing how attitudes expressing that women are incompetent and seek power over men (hostile sexism) are accompanied by more benevolent attitudes expressing that men are fulfilled by cherishing and protecting women (benevolent sexism). In the current article, we demonstrate how recent research examining intimate relationship dynamics has advanced understanding of the causes, consequences, and functions of sexist attitudes. Men’s hostile sexism is associated with aggressive perceptions and behaviors within intimate relationships that impede the fulfillment of fundamental relational needs. Benevolent sexism functions to counterbalance these costs by facilitating caring relationship behavior that enhances men’s influence and satisfaction in relationships. The relationship security that benevolent sexism promises to women is also a key reason why women endorse benevolent sexism. Yet men’s and women’s endorsement of benevolent sexism has benefits for men, such as greater relationship-oriented support of men’s goals, but imposes costs for women, such as by promoting dependence-oriented support that undermines women’s competence. Moreover, the relationship investment that benevolent sexism fosters in women makes women more vulnerable to dissatisfaction when relationship problems arise. These dynamics demonstrate how seemingly positive outcomes in intimate relationships may be a barrier to gender equality.

Internalizing sexism within close relationships: Perceptions of intimate partners' benevolent sexism promote women's endorsement of benevolent sexism.

The current research demonstrated that women's adoption of benevolent sexism is influenced by their perceptions of their intimate partners' agreement with benevolent sexism. In 2 dyadic longitudinal studies, committed heterosexual couples reported on their own sexism and perceptions of their partner's sexism twice across 9 months (Study 1) and 5 times across 1 year (Study 2). Women who perceived that their male partner more strongly endorsed benevolent sexism held greater and more stable benevolent sexism across time, whereas lower perceptions of partners' benevolent sexism predicted declines in women's benevolent sexism across time. Changes in men's endorsement of sexism were unrelated to perceptions of their partner's sexist attitudes. The naturalistic change in sexist attitudes shown in Studies 1 and 2 was supported by experimental evidence in Studies 3 and 4: Manipulations designed to increase perceptions of partner's benevolent sexism led women (but not men) to report greater benevolent sexism. Studies 3 and 4 also provided evidence that perceptions of partner's benevolent sexism fosters perceived regard and relationship security in women, but not men, and these relationship factors enhance attitude alignment. Discriminant analyses demonstrated that these effects were specific to women's perceptions of partner's, rather than societal, levels of sexism. In sum, these studies illustrate that women endorse benevolent sexism when they perceive that the reverence and security that benevolent sexism promises women are accessible in their relationships.

Male Role Norm Endorsement and Sexism Predict Heterosexual College Men’s Attitudes Toward Casual Sex, Intoxicated Sexual Contact, and Casual Sex

This study examined whether gender roles, particularly male role beliefs and sexism, may underlie self-reported attitudes toward and participation in casual sex and intoxication prior to sexual contact in a sample of heterosexual undergraduate men from the United States. We utilized online survey methods to examine whether men’s (N = 223 from a large mid-Atlantic University) endorsement of traditional masculinity (power and status, toughness, and anti-femininity) and sexist attitudes regarding women’s roles (hostile, benevolent) were related to engagement in casual sex (i.e., number of one-time-only sex partners), and whether masculinity was related to intoxicated sexual contact (i.e., propensity to consume alcohol prior to sexual contact). Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) revealed that, as expected, endorsement of the toughness male role norm was positively associated with favorable attitudes toward casual sex, and endorsement of benevolent sexism was negatively associated with favorable attitudes toward casual sex. Favorable attitudes toward casual sex, in turn, were positively associated with men’s reported number of casual sex partners, as partially mediated by intoxicated sexual contact. Further, toughness endorsement was positively associated with number of casual sex partners via its positive association with intoxicated sexual contact; whereas power and status demonstrated the opposite, negative pattern. We discuss the contribution of this research to the broader literature on gender roles and sexual behavior and the utility of the findings for interventions aimed at reducing men’s casual sex behavior and intoxication prior to sexual contact.

How Attractive Are Sexist Intimates to Adolescents? The Influence of Sexist Beliefs and Relationship Experience

The emergence of heterosexual intimate relationship experiences has been described as central to the development of ambivalent sexist attitudes during adolescence. The quality of these relationships might be largely determined by the perceived attractiveness and expectancies about potential partners also in ideological terms. In a questionnaire study, 262 Spanish adolescents reported their attraction toward various sexist (hostile, benevolent, and ambivalent) and non-sexist profiles of other-sex targets as potential friends and intimate partners. Relationships between attraction judgments and participants' own sexist beliefs as well as their experiences in romantic relationships were examined. Results show that young women considered benevolent sexist young men to be most attractive and young men considered ambivalent sexist young women to be most attractive. Congruency effects were found between these preferences and participants’ own sexist attitudes. In addition, young women’s experiences in romantic relationships significantly predicted their preference for benevolent sexist young men. Discussion focuses on the importance of socialization in the development of such preferences and on the endorsement of benevolent sexism in female and male adolescents. More generally, theoretical and applied implications of these results in relation to ambivalent sexism theory are discussed.

Benevolent Sexism, Men’s Advantages and the Prescription of Warmth to Women

Gender prescriptions consist of beliefs about the characteristics that men and women should possess. This paper focuses on stereotypic prescriptions targeting women and on some of the variables that influence the adherence to these prescriptions. In Study 1, male undergraduates (N = 36) from Belgium completed the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI—Glick and Fiske 1996), questions assessing the prescription of warmth- and competence-related traits to a female target and a measure of the target’s perceived status. In Study 2, male undergraduates (N = 80) from Belgium completed a questionnaire assessing the perceived benefit associated with warmth traits possessed by women, in either a family or a professional context, a prescription measure regarding these traits and finally the ASI. Study 1 indicated that the prescription of warmth to women depends upon their perceived status. Study 2 showed that men are more prone to seeing the benefit to be gained for themselves from women’s warmth and to prescribe it more so in a family context than in a professional one. Both studies also showed that men’s endorsement of benevolent sexism is related to women’s perceived status / the perception of a benefit for men to be gained from women’s warmth and, consequently, to the prescription of warmth traits to women.

The role of heavy episodic drinking and hostile sexism in men's sexual aggression toward female intimate partners

Research indicates that men's heavy episodic drinking is a significant risk factor for their perpetration of sexual aggression toward intimate partners. The aim of this investigation was to examine how hostile sexism (i.e., antipathy toward women) and benevolent sexism (i.e., subjectively positive, yet patriarchal, views of women) influence the relation between men's heavy episodic drinking and their perpetration of sexual aggression toward intimate partners. MethodParticipants were 205 heterosexual drinking men who completed self-report measures of quantity of alcohol consumption during the past 12months, hostile sexism, and sexual aggression toward an intimate partner during the past 12months. ResultsMen's heavy episodic drinking was positively associated with sexual aggression perpetration toward intimate partners amongst men who endorsed high, but not low, levels of hostile sexism. No such interactive effect emerged for men's endorsement of benevolent sexism. ConclusionsThese results have important implications for understanding cumulative risk factors for the perpetration of sexual aggression toward intimates.

Why are Benevolent Sexists Happier?

Research indicates that the endorsement of sexist ideology is linked to higher subjective wellbeing for both men and women. We examine gender differences in the rationalisations which drive this effect in an egalitarian nation (New Zealand). Results from a nationally representative sample (N = 6,100) indicated that the endorsement of Benevolent Sexism (BS) predicted life satisfaction through different mechanisms for men and women. For men, BS was directly associated with life satisfaction. For women, the palliative effect of BS was indirect and occurred because BS-ideology positioning women as deserving of men’s adoration and protection was linked to general perceptions of gender relations as fair and equitable, which in turn predicted greater levels of life satisfaction.

Empowering or Oppressing? Development and Exploration of the Enjoyment of Sexualization Scale

Sexualization of girls and women in America is rampant and has many negative consequences. Women, however, often report enjoying being sexually admired by men. Given this paradox, it is unclear whether such enjoyment represents an authentic empowerment of women's sexuality or is related to traditional feminine norms and sexist beliefs. In Studies 1 and 2, the authors developed and tested the eight-item Enjoyment of Sexualization Scale (ESS). It had good reliability and was differentiated from related constructs including body surveillance, body shame, self-sexualizing behaviors, and appearance-contingent self-esteem. In Study 3, endorsement of traditional gender norms, endorsement of benevolent sexism, and endorsement of hostile sexism were all positively related to the ESS. Moreover, women who both enjoyed sexualization and engaged in self-objectification reported more negative eating attitudes. Overall, there was little support for positive effects of enjoying sexualization. The extent to which enjoying sexualization actually empowers women or contributes to their oppression is discussed.

Communal stereotypes prime men's benevolent sexism: Implications for romance and family.

Previous work suggests that men holding benevolent sexist views also hold favorable attitudes toward traditional women (Glick, Diebold, Bailey-Werner, & Zhu, 1997). This study examined whether priming heterosexual men (n = 47) with traditional views of women (e.g., the stereotype that women are more communally oriented than men) engenders more benevolent sexist views, as well as greater relational motivation. The authors predicted that the communal prime would activate a complementary view of gender relations and increase men's endorsement of benevolent sexism. In turn, activating benevolent sexism would increase men's desire to appeal to women, as evidenced by greater investment in romance and family. Results of a preliminary study suggested that men's benevolent sexism was associated with greater relationship motivation and greater investment in romantic ideals and family. Results from the priming experiment confirmed the authors' hypotheses: The communal prime led men to invest in romance and family, and the effect of the prime was mediated by benevolent sexism.