Endemic Bird Species Research Articles

Feral sheep on Socorro Island: facilitators of alien plant colonization and ecosystem decay

ABSTRACTThe paper examines the role of feral sheep (Ovis aries) in facilitating the naturalization of alien plants and degrading a formerly robust and stable ecosystem of Socorro, an isolated oceanic island in the Mexican Pacific Ocean. Approximately half of the island is still sheep‐free. The other half has been widely overgrazed and transformed into savannah and prairie‐like open habitats that exhibit sheet and gully erosion and are covered by a mix of native and alien invasive vegetation today. Vegetation transects in this moderately sheep‐impacted sector show that a significant number of native and endemic herb and shrub species exhibit sympatric distribution patterns with introduced plants. Only one alien plant species has been recorded from any undisturbed and sheep‐free island sector so far.Socorro Island provides support for the hypothesis that disturbance of a pristine ecosystem is generally required for the colonization and naturalization of alien plants. Sheep are also indirectly responsible for the self‐invasion of mainland bird species into novel island habitats and for the decline and range contraction of several endemic bird species.

Pleistocene refugia in an arid landscape: analysis of a widely distributed Australian passerine

While many studies have documented the effect that glacial cycles have had on northern hemisphere species, few have attempted to study the associated effect of aridification at low latitudes in the southern hemisphere. We investigated the past effects that cyclic aridification may have had on the population structure and history of a widespread endemic Australian bird species, the Australian magpie (Gymnorhina tibicen). One thousand one hundred and sixty-six samples from across its native range were analysed for mitochondrial control region sequence variation and variation at six microsatellite loci. Analysis of mitochondrial control region sequence data indicated monophyletic clades that were geographically congruent with an eastern and western region. The contemporary distribution of east and west clades is nonoverlapping but in close proximity. Populations were estimated to have diverged in the Pleistocene around 36,000 years ago. The putative Carpentarian and Nullarbor arid barriers appear to be associated with the divergence between east and west mainland populations. Nested clade analysis indicated a signature of range expansion in the eastern region suggesting movement possibly inland and northward subsequent to the last period of aridity. The island population of Tasmania was of very recent origin, possibly since sea levels rose 16,000 years ago. Given the east-west structure, there was no congruence between morphology and recent history of this species indicating a lack of support for morphological taxa. Overall mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite variation suggest that increasing aridity and Pleistocene refugia played a role in structuring populations of the Australian magpie; however, the dispersal ability and generalist habitat requirements may have facilitated the movement of magpies into an almost contiguous modern distribution across the continent. This study supports the idea that Pleistocene aridification played an important role in structuring intraspecific variation in low latitudinal southern hemisphere avian species.

Extinction of island endemics: it is not inbreeding depression

Extinction of island endemics: it is not inbreeding depression

Voices from Bird Bones

Extinct Birds of New Zealand . By Alan Tennyson and Paul Martinson . Te Papa Press, Wellington, New Zealand, 2006. 190 pp. NZ$65. ISBN 9780909010218. Extinction and Biogeography of Tropical Pacific Birds . By David W. Steadman . University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2006. 608 pp. $110, £69.50. ISBN 9780226771410. Paper, $45, £28.50. ISBN 9780226771427. Steadman uses the paleontological and archaeological records to reconstruct the prehistoric avian communities of tropical Pacific islands, chart their postsettlement fates, and discuss the theories of island biogeography. Tennyson and Martinson describe and portray 58 endemic species of birds that disappeared within a few hundred years of the settlement of New Zealand.

Unusual abundance–range size relationship in an Afromontane bird community: the effect of geographical isolation?

AbstractAim To show that the frequently reported positive trend in the abundance–range‐size relationship does not hold true within a montane bird community of Afrotropical highlands; to test possible explanations of the extraordinary shape of this relationship; and to discuss the influence of island effects on patterns of bird abundance in the Cameroon Mountains.Location Bamenda Highlands, Cameroon, Western Africa.Methods We censused birds during the breeding season in November and December 2003 using a point‐count method and mapped habitat structure at these census points. Local habitat requirements of each species detected by point counts were quantified using canonical correspondence analysis, and the size of geographical ranges of species was measured from their distribution maps for sub‐Saharan Africa. We tested differences in abundance, niche breadth and niche position between three species groups: endemic bird species of the Cameroon Mountains, non‐endemic Afromontane species, and widespread species.Results We detected neither a positive nor negative abundance–range‐size relationship in the bird community studied. This pattern was caused by the similar abundance of widespread, endemic and non‐endemic montane bird species. Moreover, endemic and non‐endemic montane species had broader local niches than widespread species. The widespread species also used more atypical habitats, as indicated by the slightly larger values of their niche positions.Main conclusions The relationship detected between abundance and range size does not correspond with that inferred from contemporary macroecological theory. We suggest that island effects are responsible for the observed pattern. Relatively high abundances of montane species are probably caused by their adaptation to local environmental conditions, which was enabled by climatic stability and the isolation of montane forest in the Cameroon Mountains. Such a unique environment provides a less suitable habitat for widespread species. Montane species, which are abundant at present, may also have had large ranges in glacial periods, but their post‐glacial distribution may have become restricted after the retreat of the montane forest. On the basis of comparison of our results with studies describing the abundance structure of bird communities in other montane areas in the Afrotropics, we suggest that the detected patterns may be universal throughout Afromontane forests.

Ecological traits influence the current distribution and range of an island endemic bird

AbstractAim The aim of this paper is to investigate the causes of the current restricted distribution of a narrow‐range endemic bird species, the Canary Islands stonechat, Saxicola dacotiae.Location Eastern islands of the Canary Islands archipelago.Methods We compared climatic patterns (temperature and rainfall), habitat and microhabitat structure, food availability during a full annual cycle, and the abundance of native avian competitors and predators inside and outside the species’ range. Three study areas, located in similar habitats on nearby islands, were studied: northern Fuerteventura, close to the northern border of the species’ range; southern Lanzarote, 22 km from the nearest site occupied by stonechats; and the Lobos islet, 10 km from the nearest occupied site and 2 km from the coast of Fuerteventura.Results The cover of suitable habitats (slopes with high cover of large shrubs, stony fields and ravines) and microhabitats (shrubs and boulders) and the abundance of arthropods during the breeding period of Canary Islands stonechats were lower outside than inside the species’ range. Temperature, rainfall and the abundance of competitors and predators inside and outside the species’ range did not differ significantly.Main conclusions Ecological requirements explaining the distribution of the Canary Islands stonechat within its range seem to be the main factor hindering its settlement on nearby islands. Geological and palaeoclimatic processes, as well as past and current human impact, could also have constrained the distribution of this narrow‐range endemic bird species.

Organochlorine pesticide reidues and their toxic effects on the environment and organisms in Turkey

Persistent toxic substances (PTSs) appear in most urbanized coastal areas of the world, accumulating in water, sediments, and biota, where they cannot be eliminated efficiently, and their derivatives can be highly toxic. Like many other countries, Turkey is also facing problems concerning pesticides and other PTS residues. BHC and alpha, beta, gamma and delta isomers of HCH were determined in 16 samples of surface and ground waters and mussels in the Middle Black Sea Region, and the concentrations of PCB and organochlorine (OC) pesticide residues were analysed in the eastern Aegean Sea water and fish samples. PCBs were not detected in Mullus barbatus living in the Aegean Sea, and its derivatives were detected in low levels. Thirteen OC pesticides were determined in water, sediment, fish, and water birds in the Göksu Delta. Thirteen OC pesticides were analysed in the Sarıyar Dam Lake, in Sakarya basin, five lakes in Central Anatolia, and the Meriç Delta in water sediment and fish samples. Some of these pesticides were found in more or less all of the samples. Micro-organisms in soil and some saprophyte fungi detoxify chlorinated hydrocarbons by dechlorinating them. The toxicity of degraded metabolites of these insecticides, for which the Cl amounts have been reduced, decreased consequently, and toxic effects also reduced in mice when Cl was removed. Mixed cultures of micro-organisms isolated from agricultural soils were used to degrade endosulphan, carbaryl, and malathion. This result indicates that these chemicals break down in soil, resulting in a significant decrease in its toxic effects. Toxic substances cause acute, sub-chronic, and chronic effects in the environment on biota. The hermit ibises, an endemic migratory bird species, no longer visit the Birecik district. In Turkey, the reason for this is also thought to be the usage of organochlorine pesticide sprays in agricultural areas of the district. In recent years, studies have been conducted on the activation of PTSs and Cyt P450 mono-oxygenase enzymes in indicator fish species. One of these studies has been conducted on the bottom-feeding fish that live in Izmir Bay. The outcomes showed a significant decrease in the EROD activity in fish (mullet and the benthic fish common sole are used as biomonitors for PAHs and PCB-type pollutants) that have been harvested from six different stations along the Bay from the city borders towards the inner parts of the Aegean Sea. The effects of OCPs have been determined by other studies in Sarıyar Dam Lake and Meriç Delta. An increase in the EROD activity has been determined in fish living in these environments.

Impact of habitat disturbance on the distribution of endemic species of small mammals and birds in a tropical rain forest in Sri Lanka

We tested whether species endemic to Sri Lanka were less able than non-endemics to tolerate disturbed habitats. Small mammals were surveyed in four habitat types along a disturbance gradient (unlogged forest, selectively logged forest, cultivated areas and areas abandoned after cultivation) within and around the Sinharaja rain forest in south-west Sri Lanka. Twenty 90-m×40-m plots were live trapped in each of these habitat types. Twelve taxa: nine rodents (Srilankamys ohiensis, Rattus rattus kelaarti, R. r. kandianus, Mus mayori, M. cervicolor, Bandicota indica, Funambulus layardi, F. sublineatus and F. palmarum) and three insectivores (Crocidura miya, Suncus zeylanicus and Feroculus feroculus) were recorded. Of these, five were endemic to Sri Lanka at the species level (species confined to the island) and six at subspecies level (subspecies confined to the island; other subspecies occurring on the Indian subcontinent). Species richness of small mammals decreased with the magnitude of forest disturbance. The endemic species selectively utilized sites within the forest whilst the majority of the other taxa used both forest and non-forest habitat types or were restricted to the latter. Bird surveys were carried out in the same plots, using sightings and calls. Sixty-six bird species were recorded, of which 21 were endemic species. Twenty endemic bird species preferentially used sites within the forest. The findings suggest that the forest-dwelling endemic species of both small mammal and bird encounter difficulties in tolerating modified landscapes, whilst other taxa are less affected. This highlights the vulnerability of endemic species to forest conversion.

Divorce in the Canary Islands Stonechat (Saxicola dacotiae)

I report the first case of divorce for the Canary Islands Stonechat (Saxicola dacotiae), an endemic bird species of the semiarid island of Fuerteventura (Canary Islands, Spain). I studied 72 pairs during three breeding seasons (2000–2001, 2001– 2002, and 2002–2003). In 2001–2002, a female divorced after a successful first nesting. This female settled in a neighboring territory where the owner was unpaired, built a new nest, and laid four eggs. The low rate of divorce (1.4%) suggests that unforced mate changes by Canary Islands Stonechats are rare.

Living Laboratory in Peril

T he name Galapagos conjures up images of giant tortoises, Darwin's finches, and a remote pristine archipelago that is rightly described as “a living laboratory of evolution.” But that picture of this World Heritage site is seriously flawed by current events, including wholesale violations of the Special Law for Galapagos passed by the Ecuadorian government in 1998. That law, which followed a series of conflicts generated by immigration and illegal fishing, was a consensus of island and national opinion and was greeted with delight by scientists and conservationists. Alas, it isn't working. The law excluded even Ecuadorians from moving to the Galapagos unless they had been born there or had family on the islands. Unfortunately, much immigration had already occurred. The Special Law's goal was to promote the conservation of biodiversity jointly with sustainable development: a dream uniting incompatible goals. The Galapagos population has grown a remarkable 10-fold in 30 years, to over 27,000 in 2005. Consumption has grown even faster: In contrast to a mere three vehicles in the 1970s, over 350 taxis now create pollution and congestion on Santa Cruz Island. The threat to endemic species on the Galapagos is significant. A viability workshop conducted by the Darwin Initiative and the World Conservation Union (IUCN) in February of this year found that the Galapagos penguin was under serious threat, with the probability of extinction in the next century estimated at about 30%. Terrestrial ecosystems have a growing invasive species problem: Blackberries, introduced in the 1980s, now shade and smother native vegetation. Old invaders, such as goats, pigs, rats, and cats, continue to destroy native ecosystems and affect the function, species composition, and restoration of the islands. ![Figure][1] CREDITS (TOP TO BOTTOM): L. BRYAN RAY/ SCIENCE ; PETE OXFORD/GETTY IMAGES; WOLFGANG KAEHLER/CORBIS The islands' fishery, small in the early 1970s, is now an industry, serving markets in Asia and elsewhere. The sea cucumber fishery, in the 1990s, involved “pepineros” from off-island who periodically took over the Charles Darwin Research Station, holding it hostage to protest fishing restrictions. They're still around: In March 2005, one raid found 7000 sea cucumbers, of a species illegal for harvest, in crates hidden in the mangroves on Fernandina Island; 100,000 were also captured on Isabela. An international shark fishery has already decimated that population in its effort to supply the Asian market for shark-fin soup. Tourism is currently capped at 120,000 tourists a year, and an average year sees about 100,000 tourists visit the islands. They generate an annual $150 million, but most of the money either stays on the mainland or goes to where the tours originate. Tourism, even when well managed, generates external costs through waste disposal and also by encouraging development and a standard of living that attracts immigrants. Several immediate actions are needed to help the Galapagos archipelago remain a poster child for evolution and conservation. The islands need a nonextractive marine park around the westernmost islands of Fernandina and Isabela to protect the two endemic bird species (the Galapagos penguin and flightless cormorant) that are concentrated there. Policies limiting human population growth and consumption on the islands should be encouraged. Conservation measures are needed to prevent the introduction of diseases such as West Nile Virus and avian malaria. Fishing rights could also be bought out. New regulations must control illegal fishing and prohibit fishing techniques with unacceptable bycatch. Alternative work for genuine fishermen must be found. Galapagos tour costs should also include the external environmental costs of tourism. How will such changes come about, and who will exact them? The organization charged with running the Galapagos, the National Park, lacks stability at the top. Ten park directors have been terminated in the past 2 years. Their demise was the result of constant political intervention to ignore exploitation of the islands. That leaves the solution in the hands of others. How can scientists help? Through scientific and professional organizations, we can call on establishments such as the IUCN to help the Ecuadorian government carry out science-based conservation, acquire worldwide financial support, and devise and enforce new laws that work. Our responsibility as scientists is to alert institutions, governments, and the public to the de-evolution of the Galapagos Islands. The international science community must garner strong global political support for the natural wonders of the Galapagos. Only then will this laboratory of evolution have a chance to persist for another 100 years. [1]: pending:yes

Extinction and endemism in the New Zealand avifauna

ABSTRACTAim Species belonging to higher taxa endemic to islands are more likely to go extinct following human arrival. This selectivity may occur because more highly endemic island species possess features that make them uniquely vulnerable to impacts associated with human arrival, specifically: (1) restricted distribution (2) reduced predator escape response, including loss of flight, and (3) life history traits, such as large body mass, associated with greater susceptibility to hunting or habitat loss. This study aims to identify which of these features can explain the selective extinction of more highly endemic bird species in New Zealand.Location North and South Island, New Zealand.Methods Bird species breeding in New Zealand prior to human arrival were classified according to whether they became extinct or not during two periods of human settlement, prehistoric (post‐Maori but pre‐European arrival) and historic (post‐European arrival). We modelled the relationships between extinction probability, level of endemism and life history traits in both periods.Results The prehistoric extinction–endemism relationship can be explained entirely by the selective extinction of large‐bodied species, whereas the historic extinction–endemism relationship appears due to increased susceptibility to introduced predators resulting from the loss of predator escape responses, including loss of flight.Conclusions These features may explain extinction–endemism relationships more generally, given that human hunting and predator introductions are major impacts associated with human arrival on islands.

Effects of Land Use on Bird Species Richness in Sulawesi, Indonesia

Abstract: There is still much debate over the potential value of land‐use systems for the maintenance of tropical biodiversity. An increasing number of studies indicate that much forest biodiversity can also be found in the agricultural landscape matrix. Because there is little information on the potential value of land‐use systems for tropical forest bird species, we conducted repeated point counts in near‐primary forest, adjacent young secondary forest, modernized cacao agroforestry systems, and annual cultures at submontane elevations in central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Species richness decreased from natural forest and young secondary forest to agroforestry systems and annual cultures. Although species richness was similar between natural and young secondary forest, the number of endemic bird species was significantly lower in second‐growth forest. Species composition gradually changed as the habitat changed from natural to secondary forest, agroforestry systems, and annual cultures. Despite close proximity to near‐primary forest, the agroforestry systems studied supported only a few small frugivorous‐nectarivorous species. Our results suggest that secondary forest could play an important role in the conservation of many Sulawesi bird species, but, although suitable for colonization, its potential to sustain populations over the long term is unknown. Improvement of the landscape matrix for biodiversity conservation through secondary habitats therefore seems desirable to enlarge the ranges of forest species, but the fight against land conversion within protected areas of the region should be of much higher importance, at least at present.

Long‐Term Population Changes of Native and Introduced Birds in the Alaka‘i Swamp, Kaua‘i

Abstract: Within the last 30 years, five endemic bird species of the Alaka‘i Swamp, Kaua‘i, Hawai‘i, have likely gone extinct. We documented population trends of the remaining avifauna in this time period to identify a common pattern in the Hawaiian Islands: decline of native species and expansion of introduced species. We conducted bird surveys over 100 km2of the Alaka‘i and Kōke‘e regions of Kaua‘i in March–April 2000 to estimate population size, distribution, and range limits of seven native and six introduced forest birds. We compared the results with four previous surveys conducted over the last 30 years. Five of the seven native species we studied have fared well, maintaining sizeable populations (>20,000 individuals) and unchanged or increasing numbers. The endemic ‘Akikiki (Oreomystis bairdi), however, declined from 6296 (SE ± 1374) to 1472 (SE ± 680) individuals and exhibited range contraction from 88 to 36 km2. The ‘I‘iwi (Vestiaria coccinea) also experienced a decline and contraction, though not as severe. Populations of several introduced forest birds are increasing, but all species, excluding the Japanese White‐eye (Zosterops japonicus), were at low numbers (<5,500 individuals in survey area). One introduced species, the Japanese Bush‐Warbler (Cettia diphone) recently invaded, whereas another, the Red‐billed Leiothrix (Leiothrix lutea), has been extirpated. Two hurricanes in the past 20 years appear to have most strongly affected nectarivores and may have contributed to the decline or extinction of several other species. Overall, native bird populations on Kaua‘i have exhibited species‐specific responses to limiting factors. Although most native populations appear stable, the extant native avifauna is vulnerable as a result of limited distributions and the potential for widespread habitat degradation.

Diet of mammalian predators in braided river beds in the central South Island, New Zealand

In New Zealand, five of the six endemic bird species that breed primarily in South Island braided river beds are classed as threatened. A major cause of decline for these species is predation by introduced mammals, and predator-trapping programs are undertaken in the braided rivers of the Mackenzie Basin to protect them. Trapping programs carried out between September 1997 and April 2001 provided the opportunity to investigate predator diet from the gut contents of 375 cats (Felis catus), 371 ferrets (Mustela furo) and 86 stoats (Mustela erminea). As a percentage frequency of occurrence of the main prey items, cat diet consisted of lagomorphs (present in 70% of guts), birds (in 47%), lizards (30%) and invertebrates (36%). Ferret diet consisted of lagomorphs (69%) and birds (28%). Stoat diet consisted of lagomorphs (50%), birds (51%), lizards (21%) and invertebrates (23%). The frequency of occurrence of birds in all three predators was higher in the spring/summer of 1997 – immediately after rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD) was introduced – than in any other previous diet study on these braided rivers. This suggests that RHD did lead to increased predation pressure on birds, at least in the short term.

DESCRIPTION OF THE NEST, EGGS, AND BREEDING BEHAVIOR OF THE ENDANGERED PALE-HEADED BRUSH-FINCH (ATLAPETES PALLIDICEPS) IN ECUADOR

The Pale-headed Brush-Finch ( Atlapetes pallidiceps) is a critically endangered endemic bird species that is restricted to a single valley in southern Ecuador. We present the first description of the nest, eggs, breeding behavior, and juvenal plumage of this species. Seventy-two percent of nests (n 5 18) were placed on thin overhanging branches 1-3 m above the ground, directly beneath the top layer of foliage in dense thickets. Nesting material consisted of various proportions of grass, twigs, and bamboo stalks and leaves. Clutch sizes ranged from 1-3 eggs (n 5 22), and $55% of nests (n 5 18) were parasitized by Shiny Cowbirds (Molothrus bonariensis). The background color of eggs was buffish white to bluish, and they were spotted and blotched with diffuse brown markings. Mean egg size was 24 3 17.8 mm. Fledgling plumage differed from adult plumage and had some characteristics similar to the adult White-winged Brush-Finch (Atlapetes leucopterus). Females alone incubated the eggs, and both parents fed the offspring. Incubation and nestling times were 12-14 days each. Fledglings of the Pale-headed Brush-Finch were led for several weeks after fledging. No pair initiated a second clutch after a successful first one (n 5 16), but we observed second and third clutches after nest failure had occurred. Prolonged postfledging care is assumed to prevent multiple broods of the Pale-headed Brush- Finch during one season. Received 13 February 2003, accepted 30 July 2003.

Global patterns in endemism explained by past climatic change.

I propose that global patterns in numbers of range-restricted endemic species are caused by variation in the amplitude of climatic change occurring on time-scales of 10-100 thousand years (Milankovitch oscillations). The smaller the climatic shifts, the more probable it is that palaeoendemics survive and that diverging gene pools persist without going extinct or merging, favouring the evolution of neoendemics. Using the change in mean annual temperature since the last glacial maximum, estimated from global circulation models, I show that the higher the temperature change in an area, the fewer endemic species of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and vascular plants it harbours. This relationship was robust to variation in area (for areas greater than 10(4) km2), latitudinal position, extent of former glaciation and whether or not areas are oceanic islands. Past climatic change was a better predictor of endemism than annual temperature range in all phylads except amphibians, suggesting that Rapoport's rule (i.e. species range sizes increase with latitude) is best explained by the increase in the amplitude of climatic oscillations towards the poles. Globally, endemic-rich areas are predicted to warm less in response to greenhouse-gas emissions, but the predicted warming would cause many habitats to disappear regionally, leading to species extinctions.

Population sizes and the conservation status of endemic and restricted-range bird species on Karakelang, Talaud Islands, Indonesia

Karakelang, largest of the Talaud Islands, Indonesia, was visited in 1999 with the aim of producing population estimates of globally threatened and Restricted-range bird species. Density estimates were calculated from primary forest and secondary habitats using the variable circular plot method. Eight of the nine restricted-range or threatened species resident on Karakelang were recorded and density estimates calculated for five of these. Two species of rail are endemic to Karakelang, Talaud Bush-hen Amaurornis magnirostris and Talaud Rail Gymnocrex talaudensis. The bush-hen was encountered in secondary habitat but occurred at higher densities in primary forest and the estimated population was 2,350–9,560 birds. The less vocal, cryptic G. talaudensis was noted just twice, in primary forest close to rivers. Both have small populations, are threatened by habitat degradation, hunting, and possibly predation by introduced rats and should be classified as threatened. Population densities of the Endangered, endemic Red-and-blue Lory Eos histrio had remained stable since the last survey in 1997. They occurred at higher densities in primary forest, but were also common in human-made habitats. The estimated population was 8,230–21,400 birds, threatened by habitat loss and trapping for the wild bird trade. Although more commonly encountered in forest, the Near Threatened Blue-naped Parrot Tanygnathus lucionensis was found at higher densities in secondary habitats, and the population was estimated at 8,130–20,700 birds. The Restricted-range Blue-tailed Imperial Pigeon D. concinna was very common on Karakelang (14,500–27,700 birds), whilst the Vulnerable Grey Imperial Pigeon D. pickeringii was recorded rarely; both species were more frequently recorded in primary forest. The endemic Talaud Kingfisher Halcyon enigma occurred at low densities (5,290–8,690 birds), in primary forest and adjacent disturbed areas. It is heavily dependent on primary forest and threatened by habitat loss, and should be classified as Vulnerable. Approximately 350 km2 of primary forest on Karakelang is protected, 250 km2 as a wildlife reserve. However, at present, management is absent and forest is threatened by agricultural encroachment, illegal logging, and fire. Given that all endemic and threatened species were encountered more frequently or occurred at higher densities in primary forests, future conservation efforts should target these protected areas. Management of reserves should involve local stakeholders from government and representatives of island communities. Wildlife trade is a major threat to Eos histrio and strict enforcement of the species' protected status should include monitoring of roost sites, patrols of harbours and markets in Talaud, Sulawesi and the Philippines, and the control of Philippine fishing boats involved in the wild bird trade. Further species-specific research and monitoring is also required.

HAWAIIAN BIRDS: LESSONS FROM A REDISCOVERED AVIFAUNA

IN THE INTRODUCTION to Hawaiian Birdlife, Andrew Berger (1972) wrote with frustration and dismay about his futile search for several species of endemic Hawaiian birds that had been described by collectors in the 1890s, but apparently were extinct by the mid-20th century. He bemoaned the fact that the ecology and behavior of those birds could never be studied. In fact, the loss of diversity and the gaps in our knowledge of the ecology and evolution of Hawaii's birds both are far greater than Berger could have imagined. During the past three decades, paleontological efforts spearheaded by Storrs Olson and Helen James have unearthed an unsuspected number and diversity of extinct birds. Bones collected from sand dunes, lava tubes, sinkholes, and former lakebeds have approximately doubled the number of endemic Hawaiian species. Among the fossil taxa collected and described by Olson and James are at least 15 new species in the spectacular honeycreeper radiation (tribe Drepanidini); several species of raptors unknown in the historical avifauna, including an eagle, a harrier, and a radiation of bird-eating owls; and many flightless birds, including rails, ibises, ducks, and geese (Olson and James 1982a, b, 1991; James and Olson 1991). Olson and James have demonstrated that the historically recorded Hawaiian avifauna, although spectacular, is a meager and biased sample of the fauna that existed prehistorically (i.e. before 1778, the year of the arrival of James Cook in the Hawaiian Islands). Radiocarbon dating of bones of extinct birds and presence of extinct birds in some archaeological sites have shown that extinctions on Hawaii occurred after humans colonized the archipelago, -1,600 years ago (Olson and James 1982a, b; James et al. 1987, Burney et al. 2001). That pattern of massive, rapid extinction of endemic birds following human colonization has been found on oceanic islands throughout the

Conservation on diversity and distribution patterns of endemic birds in China

The diversity and distribution patterns of endemic species of birds inChina have been studied on the basis of the distribution database of specimencollections and published references. One hundred and two endemic species ofbirds in China, belonging to 53 genera, 16 families and 8 orders are recognized.They account for 8.1% of the total species of China. The distribution patternswere studied and three centers of endemism were found, includingHengduanshan Mountains, mountain areas of western Qinling, north Sichuan Province andSouth Gansu Province, as well as Taiwan Island, which are suggested as conservationpriorities based on endemism. Twenty-four endemics are rare and endangered, listedin the China Red Data Book of Endangered Animals. Among them, 15 species are in rankI and 9 species are in rank II. The study results are to be beneficial tofurther study on both the processing mechanism of the distribution patterns andon the priority of the diversity and endemism conservation.

Patterns of endemic extinctions among island bird species

The relationship between island biogeography and the vulnerability of island biota to extinction as a result of human activities was examined. In particular, this study analyzed whether island area, maximum elevation of an island, isolation from the nearest continental landmass, or date of human colonization had statistically significant relationships with the proportion of endemic island bird species that have become endangered or extinct. The study examined islands or island groups with endemic bird species, and which have never been connected to a continental landmass. Both modern and fossil bird species were incorporated into the analysis. Islands that were colonized by humans earliest had the lowest proportion of modern species alone, and modern and fossil species combined, that have gone extinct. However, date of human arrival was not correlated with the proportion of modern species that are endangered. Maximum elevation of an island was negatively correlated with the proportion of modern species that are extinct, and was positively correlated with the proportion of modern species that are endangered. Area was negatively correlated with the proportion of modern species that are endangered. Isolation of islands was not significantly correlated with the proportion of modern species extinct or endangered, but was positively correlated with the proportion of modern and fossil species combined that have gone extinct. These results indicate that the initial spasm of island bird extinctions due to human contact may have, in part, passed. They also indicate that bird species on islands colonized earliest by humans may have had more time to adapt to the presence of man and his commensal species, resulting in reduced extinction rates.